Datura
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Datura (Datura stramonium L., Solanaceae) — jimson weed, thorn apple, devil's snare — is a cosmopolitan annual plant containing tropane alkaloids that produce potent anticholinergic delirium. Its principal psychoactive constituents, scopolamine and hyoscyamine, are competitive muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists unrelated to serotonergic psychedelics. These alkaloids block acetylcholine at M1–M5 receptors throughout the brain and body, collapsing cognition, autonomic regulation, and reality discrimination.[1]
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The 1676 Jamestown, Virginia mass poisoning of British soldiers is among the earliest detailed Western accounts of Datura intoxication.[2] Traditional use spans Native American initiatory practices, Indian Ayurvedic medicine, and Haitian ethnopharmacology, with the plant exploited across cultures for its capacity to produce stupor and amnesia.[3] Today, the constituent alkaloids are WHO-classified essential medicines used pharmaceutically as antispasmodics and antiemetics, though the plant itself remains largely unscheduled.[4]
Subjective effects include profound delirium, dense amnesia, fully realistic hallucinations across all sensory modalities, and complete loss of reality contact. The experience is a global cognitive collapse — not a perceptual overlay on intact awareness — in which the user cannot recognize hallucinations as drug-induced. Peripheral effects include pupil dilation, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and urinary retention, persisting 12–48 hours.[5]
Physical dependence liability is low — the extreme aversiveness of the delirious experience discourages repeated use.[6] The margin between psychoactive and lethal doses is extremely narrow, and alkaloid concentrations vary dramatically across species, plant organs, and growing conditions, making dose prediction from plant material impossible.[7][8] No controlled human studies of Datura plant material exist; all toxicity data derive from poisoning case series.
History[edit]
Traditional and historical use
Datura stramonium was formally described by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum (1753), though human use of the genus predates Western taxonomy by millennia. The name Datura derives from the Sanskrit dhattura, reflecting deep roots in Indian traditional medicine.[9]
In India, Datura metel appears in Ayurvedic texts including the Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita, prescribed for asthma, pain, and fever, and associated with the deity Shiva in religious contexts.citation needed In the Americas, Native American groups — including the Chumash, Zuni, and Plains tribes — used D. innoxia and D. stramonium in initiatory rituals and vision quests.citation needed In South America, Datura species were combined with mescaline-containing cacti in Andean traditional medicine.[9]
In medieval Europe, Datura joined Atropa belladonna, henbane, and mandrake in topical preparations associated with witchcraft, exploiting transdermal absorption of tropane alkaloids.citation needed In Haiti, scopolamine-containing Datura preparations were documented as a component of ethnopharmacological "zombie powder" — Wade Davis's 1980s fieldwork brought this use to scientific attention.[3]
Western discovery and pharmaceutical history
The common name "jimsonweed" derives from "Jamestown weed." In 1676, British soldiers sent to suppress Bacon's Rebellion in Jamestown, Virginia consumed Datura in a stew and were incapacitated for 11 days — one of the earliest documented mass intoxications in North America.[2][9]
atropine (racemic mixture hyoscyamine) was first isolated from Atropa belladonna in 1833; scopolamine followed in 1888. By the early 20th century, anti-asthmatic cigarettes containing D. stramonium leaves were marketed under brands such as Asthmador — approximately 4.5% atropine and 50.4% scopolamine by weight of total alkaloid content — and were subsequently abused for psychoactive effects.[5][9]
Transdermal scopolamine was approved by the FDA for motion sickness in 1979. Pharmaceutical scopolamine has demonstrated rapid antidepressant effects in clinical trials for major depressive disorder, though this application remains investigational.[10] In 2020, yeast-based biosynthesis of both scopolamine and hyoscyamine was achieved, establishing a pharmaceutical supply chain independent of plant cultivation.[4]
Criminal use
Datura has been documented as a drug-facilitated incapacitating agent in criminal contexts, exploiting the rapid onset of confusion, amnesia, and delirium characteristic of anticholinergic toxicity. A 2016 forensic case reported homicidal administration of Datura in a drink during a robbery, resulting in death from cardiac arrhythmia.[11] A 2025 review of 114 poisoning case reports (2001–2024) identified criminal administration as a recurring category alongside accidental ingestion, recreational abuse, and suicide attempts.[2]
Botanical Overview[edit]
Datura is a genus in the family Solanaceae (nightshade family), placed within tribe Datureae. Phylogenetic analysis based on chloroplast genome data positions Datura as a sister clade to Solanum.[12] The most widely distributed species is D. stramonium L. (jimson weed), though several other species — including D. innoxia, D. metel, and D. wrightii — are also encountered. All species contain tropane alkaloids capable of producing anticholinergic toxicity.
D. stramonium is cosmopolitan, thriving as a ruderal weed in disturbed soils, roadsides, agricultural margins, and waste ground across temperate and subtropical regions on every inhabited continent. It is not cultivated commercially for psychoactive use; encounters are typically incidental, ornamental, or agricultural.citation needed
The plant is an annual herb reaching 0.5–1.5 m in height. Leaves are large, coarsely toothed, and emit a distinctive unpleasant odor when crushed. Flowers are trumpet-shaped, white to pale violet, 6–9 cm long, and open in the evening. The fruit is a spiny capsule — the "thorn apple" — approximately 5 cm in diameter, splitting at maturity to release numerous small, dark, kidney-shaped seeds.citation needed Seeds and flowers carry the highest alkaloid concentrations; leaves and stems contain lower but still pharmacologically significant amounts.[7]
For psychoactive or toxic exposure, all plant parts are relevant. Seeds are the most commonly ingested material in poisoning cases. Leaves have historically been dried and smoked. Alkaloid distribution varies across plant organs, individual specimens, seasons, and growing conditions, making any uncharacterized preparation intrinsically unpredictable.[7]
Alkaloid Profile[edit]
The dominant alkaloids in Datura are scopolamine (hyoscine) and hyoscyamine, both tropane alkaloids derived from the same biosynthetic pathway. Scopolamine is generally the more pharmacologically potent constituent in the central nervous system due to its greater lipophilicity and more efficient blood-brain barrier penetration.[13] Hyoscyamine predominates in most Datura tissues by mass, while scopolamine may predominate in certain organs or species — the Asthmador anti-asthma cigarette formulation, for example, contained approximately 50.4% scopolamine and 4.5% atropine by weight of total alkaloid content.[9]
Both alkaloids are competitive antagonists at all five muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes (M1–M5), blocking endogenous acetylcholine at central and peripheral sites.[13][1] Their combined action produces the full anticholinergic syndrome: cognitive disruption (M1), cardiac rhythm changes (M2), suppression of glandular secretion and smooth muscle tone (M3), and impairment of higher cortical function (M4/M5). The ratio of scopolamine to hyoscyamine in a given preparation determines whether central or peripheral effects predominate.
atropine — the racemic mixture form of hyoscyamine — is present in trace amounts in fresh plant material and increases as hyoscyamine racemizes during drying and storage. Atropine produces effects qualitatively similar to hyoscyamine but with somewhat less CNS penetration at equivalent doses. Minor tropane alkaloids including norhyoscyamine and meteloidine have been identified in various Datura species but contribute minimally to the overall pharmacological profile.citation needed
Alkaloid concentrations vary dramatically across species, plant organs (seeds vs. leaves vs. flowers vs. roots), geographic location, season, and growing conditions.[7] A batch of seeds from one plant may contain several-fold more alkaloid than an identical mass from another specimen of the same species. No standardized potency measure exists for raw plant material, and this inherent unpredictability is the primary driver of Datura's extreme toxicity risk.
Neuroscience[edit]
Where it acts
Scopolamine and hyoscyamine block muscarinic acetylcholine receptors throughout the brain. M1 receptor blockade in the hippocampus and cortex disrupts memory encoding and retrieval, producing the characteristic dense amnesia.[14] At higher doses, widespread cortical muscarinic blockade produces the full deliriant syndrome — delirium, fully realistic hallucinations, and profound disorientation.[13] Scopolamine's greater lipophilicity gives it more efficient blood-brain barrier crossing than hyoscyamine, so scopolamine-dominant preparations produce central effects at lower systemic doses.
What it changes
The anticholinergic delirium is fundamentally distinct from serotonergic hallucinogen experiences. Hallucinations are fully realistic and externally projected — the affected individual cannot recognize them as drug-induced, producing a completely deceptive cognitive state.[1] Peripherally, M2 blockade removes the vagal brake on heart rate (tachycardia), M3 blockade suppresses secretions and smooth muscle activity (dry mouth, urinary retention, gut stasis), and impaired cholinergic thermoregulation causes hyperthermia through inability to sweat.[15][14]
No neuroimaging studies using Datura plant material have been published. The mechanism by which muscarinic blockade generates complex, fully realistic hallucinations — rather than simple perceptual distortion — remains poorly understood. Whether scopolamine-to-hyoscyamine ratio differences across species produce qualitatively distinct delirium subtypes has not been systematically investigated.
Subjective Effects[edit]
The Datura experience is defined by anticholinergic delirium — a global disruption of cognition, orientation, and reality discrimination that bears no resemblance to serotonergic psychedelic states. Hallucinations span visual, auditory, and tactile modalities and are experienced as indistinguishable from reality; the user does not recognize them as drug-induced. Dense anterograde amnesia blankets the intoxication period, rendering the experience largely irretrievable afterward. The character of the syndrome does not vary qualitatively with dose — higher doses produce more severe delirium, greater autonomic instability, and increased lethality risk, but the fundamental experience remains a toxic delirium rather than a scaled perceptual shift.
Datura's closest pharmacological comparator is Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), which contains the same tropane alkaloid profile and produces an identical anticholinergic syndrome. The experience has no meaningful overlap with classical psychedelics (psilocybin, LSD), dissociatives (ketamine, DXM), or empathogens (MDMA) — it is most accurately described as a toxic delirium with hallucinatory features, not a psychedelic or entheogenic state.
Effect Grid
No common recreational dose exists for Datura. The concept of a predictable, tolerable dose range does not apply to this substance. In a case series of 29 intentional ingestions (Rodgers 1993), reported amounts ranged from "a few seeds" to half a cup — all patients developed anticholinergic syndrome with mydriasis, tachycardia, flushing, and hallucinations.
At doses producing the characteristic delirium, effects include external hallucinations indistinguishable from reality, dense amnesia, confusion, motor control impairment, temperature dysregulation, and restlessness. The experience persists 12–48 hours with residual cognitive impairment extending beyond subjective recovery.
Every ingestion at this level carries genuine risk of medical emergency. Fatalities have occurred at doses within the range reported by surviving patients.
Modeled from the effect's dose-dependence curve — not per-substance measurements.
Light sensitivity · Sleep-transition hallucinations · Brightness alteration · Depth perception distortion · Peripheral vision distortion · Taste suppression · Vestibular distortion · Visual drifting · After-images · Auditory distortion · Auditory misinterpretation · Perspective distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Visual morphing · Touch suppression · Dreaming enhancement · Tinnitus · Touch enhancement · External hallucinations · Shadow people · Auditory hallucinations · Internal hallucinations · Object activation · Object transformations · Visual processing suppression · Olfactory hallucination · Gustatory hallucination
Peripheral vision distortion · Taste suppression · Vestibular distortion · Visual drifting · After-images · Auditory distortion · Auditory misinterpretation · Perspective distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Visual morphing · Touch suppression · Dreaming enhancement · Tinnitus · Touch enhancement · External hallucinations · Shadow people · Auditory hallucinations · Internal hallucinations · Object activation · Object transformations · Visual processing suppression · Olfactory hallucination · Gustatory hallucination
Constipation · Motor control impairment · Physical fatigue · Restlessness · Dizziness · Heart rate perception changes · Sedation · Appetite suppression · Bodily heaviness · Spontaneous body sensations · Involuntary body movements · Nausea · Sexual arousal suppression · Wakefulness · Trembling · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Stimulation · Muscle tension · Seizure threshold reduction · Vomiting · Headache · Insomnia · Respiratory depression · Respiratory stimulation · Tactile hallucination
Dizziness · Heart rate perception changes · Sedation · Appetite suppression · Bodily heaviness · Spontaneous body sensations · Involuntary body movements · Nausea · Sexual arousal suppression · Wakefulness · Trembling · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Stimulation · Muscle tension · Seizure threshold reduction · Vomiting · Headache · Insomnia · Respiratory depression · Respiratory stimulation · Tactile hallucination
Confusion · Thought disorganization · Cognitive impairment · Thought deceleration · Cognitive dysphoria · Motivation suppression · Cognitive fatigue · Language suppression · Pattern recognition suppression · Delusions of sobriety · Memory fragmentation · Amnesia · Delirium · Delusions
Thought deceleration · Cognitive dysphoria · Motivation suppression · Cognitive fatigue · Language suppression · Pattern recognition suppression · Memory fragmentation · Amnesia · Delirium · Delusions
Emotional suppression · Emotional lability
Communication suppression · Social disconnection · Depersonalization · Automaticity · Cognitive disconnection · Identity alteration
Cognitive disconnection · Identity alteration
Timeline · by preparation
Safety[edit]
- Acute toxicity
- Critical
- Chronic toxicity
- High
- Withdrawal
- None
- Tolerance buildup
- moderate
- Tolerance reset
- 10 days
- Physical
- Negligible
- Psychological
- Negligible
- Compulsive redosing
- Negligible
- Dose escalation
- Negligible
- Cross-tol.
- atropine · scopolamine (pharmaceutical) · diphenhydramine
Toxicity
No human LD50 has been established for Datura or its constituent tropane alkaloids. An oral dose of approximately 50 mg atropine sulfate has been described as potentially fatal.[16] The European Food Safety Authority established a group acute reference dose (ARfD) for (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine combined at 0.016 µg/kg body weight.[17] Dietary exposure of toddlers from grain contamination alone can reach up to 7 times this ARfD.[17]
Documented fatalities include a 58-year-old male who died from accidental foodborne tropane alkaloid ingestion (2025),[18] a 19-year-old male found dead after intentional seed ingestion with postmortem hyoscyamine of 1.1 µg/mL and scopolamine 0.2 µg/mL,[8] and a 35-year-old homicide victim who died from cardiac arrhythmia after Datura was administered in a drink.[11]
Datura seeds are a recognized contaminant of grain crops including buckwheat, millet, and quinoa. The EU regulates seed presence in animal feeds at a maximum of 1000 mg/kg under Directive 2002/32/EC, with analytical targets of 800 µg/kg for combined hyoscyamine and scopolamine.[19] Mass poisonings from contaminated grain have been documented. Variable potency across species, organs, seasons, and growing conditions renders any uncharacterized preparation intrinsically unpredictable.[7] Commercial herbal products have occasionally been found to contain undisclosed Datura material on forensic testing.safety citation needed
Psychological Risks
Acute psychosis occurs at toxic doses — it was documented in 12 of 17 severe D. stramonium intoxication cases reviewed by the Swiss toxicology Information Center over 29 years.[20] A separate series of 7 patients aged 14–27 treated in Kraków required physostigmine in 5 cases.[21]
Extensive amnesia is typical — patients rarely retain any memory of the intoxication period.[5] Residual anxiety, paranoia, and dysphoria may persist after acute delirium resolves. Risk of accidental self-harm, falls, and trauma during the delirious state is substantial due to motor impairment and inability to distinguish hallucinations from reality.
Children are particularly susceptible — an 8-year-old with accidental ingestion presented with aggression, agitation, delirium, and visual hallucinations.[22]
Tolerance & Dependence
No published controlled studies on tolerance development or abuse liability for Datura exist. The anticholinergic drug class generally carries low physical dependence potential. Cholinergic rebound effect (excessive sweating, gastrointestinal cramping, bradycardia) has been described upon abrupt cessation of chronic anticholinergic medication use but is not well-documented for Datura plant exposure specifically.safety citation needed
Psychological dependence is expected to be low. The extreme aversiveness of the delirious experience — amnesia, terror, and complete loss of reality contact — discourages repeated use in most individuals.[6] Datura-associated use among teens typically did not escalate to repeated use.[15] No established cessation programs or withdrawal management protocols specific to Datura exist.
Drug Interactions
The most critical interaction is additive anticholinergic burden. Concurrent use with any anticholinergic medication — tricyclic antidepressants, first-generation antihistamines, antipsychotics, antiparkinsonian agents (trihexyphenidyl, benztropine), bladder antimuscarinics (oxybutynin, tolterodine), and antiemetics (promethazine) — produces additive or synergistic toxicity. Pharmacovigilance data show anticholinergic drug burden averaging 2.4 concurrent atropinic drugs in adverse event reports, with at least one atropinic drug present in 59.4% of reports.[23] Severity: potentially life-threatening.
CYP3A4 inhibitors — including grapefruit juice, ketoconazole, erythromycin, and fluconazole — increase scopolamine and hyoscyamine plasma levels by inhibiting first-pass metabolism. Grapefruit juice increases scopolamine AUC to approximately 142% of control.[13]
CNS depressants — alcohol, benzodiazepines, and opioids — produce additive central nervous system depression. Alcohol additionally increases alkaloid extraction from plant material when used as a preparation solvent.[16]
Physostigmine (acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) serves as the specific antidote for severe central anticholinergic syndrome, reversing both central and peripheral effects at doses of 1–6 mg IV in monitored settings.[21][14]
Contraindications
Absolute contraindications:
- Angle-closure glaucoma: Mydriasis from muscarinic blockade can precipitate an acute angle-closure crisis — a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent permanent vision loss.
- Urinary obstruction or benign prostatic hyperplasia: Anticholinergic-mediated detrusor relaxation and sphincter contraction produce acute urinary retention.
- Pregnancy: Scopolamine crosses the placenta readily.[13] Anticholinergic exposure during pregnancy carries fetal risk.
Relative contraindications:
- Cardiac disease: Elevated tachycardia and arrhythmia risk; fatal cardiac arrhythmia documented in a Datura poisoning case.[11]
- Elderly individuals: Heightened sensitivity to anticholinergic toxicity, with greater risk of cognitive impairment, falls, and delirium at lower doses.[24]
- Pediatric populations: Children are particularly susceptible — small quantities of plant material produce serious CNS symptoms.[22]
- Psychiatric illness: Datura may precipitate acute psychosis or worsen existing psychotic conditions.[20]
- Users of anticholinergic medications: Additive anticholinergic burden as described under Drug Interactions.
- Hepatic impairment: CYP3A4-mediated first-pass metabolism is the primary clearance mechanism; hepatic impairment may increase systemic exposure.safety citation needed
Standard urine immunoassay drug panels do not detect scopolamine, hyoscyamine, or atropine. Detection requires targeted GC-MS or LC-MS analysis, typically performed only in forensic or specialized toxicology contexts.[8][11]
Preparations[edit]
Raw seed ingestion
Raw seeds are the most commonly reported preparation in poisoning case series. Seeds are typically swallowed whole or chewed. No reliable dose range exists — alkaloid content per seed varies unpredictably across individual plants, species, and growing conditions.[7] Published case reports describe ingestion of anywhere from a handful to over 100 seeds, with outcomes ranging from moderate delirium to death.[8] Onset occurs within 30–60 minutes; effects persist 12–48 hours.[5] The delayed peak and extended duration create a high risk of additional ingestion before full effects manifest. This is the preparation most frequently associated with fatal outcomes.
Smoked leaf
Dried leaf material has been smoked for centuries, most notably in the form of commercial anti-asthma cigarettes (Asthmador brand) marketed through the mid-20th century.[5] Smoking provides faster onset (minutes) than oral ingestion but delivers a less predictable alkaloid dose due to variable combustion and inhalation depth. Alkaloid content in leaves is generally lower than in seeds, though still sufficient to produce full anticholinergic toxicity.
Aqueous decoction (tea)
Tea prepared from leaves, seeds, or flowers represents another traditional and contemporary preparation. Steeping time, water temperature, and plant material quantity all affect alkaloid extraction, with no standardized protocol. Onset and duration approximate those of raw seed ingestion (30–60 minutes onset, 12–48 hours duration), though extraction efficiency introduces an additional source of dose unpredictability.
Alcohol-based extract
Alcohol extracts (tinctures) use ethanol as a solvent, which increases alkaloid extraction efficiency compared to water.[16] This produces a more concentrated preparation with correspondingly elevated overdose risk. Medieval European topical preparations associated with witchcraft exploited transdermal absorption of tropane alkaloids dissolved in fat-based vehicles.
Per-preparation dose tiers, timelines, and bioavailability data are in the Dose · by preparation card on this page.
Harm Reduction[edit]
Forms & Identification
There is no commercially standardized Datura product. All plant-derived preparations — seeds, dried leaves, teas, tinctures — are uncharacterized in terms of alkaloid content unless independently tested. No Certificate of Analysis, ISO-accredited lab testing program, or consumer-grade reagent kit exists for tropane alkaloid quantification in raw plant material. This means there is no reliable way to determine the dose of any Datura preparation before consumption. The variability between individual plants of the same species is sufficient to produce outcomes ranging from mild peripheral effects to fatal toxicity from the same mass of material.
Guidelines
- Psychedex does not recommend Datura use in any preparation. No safe recreational dose has been established.
- If exposure occurs or is anticipated: do not use alone under any circumstances. Ensure a sober companion is present for the full duration (up to 48 hours).
- Do not combine with any other anticholinergic medication, alcohol, CNS depressants, or CYP3A4 inhibitors (including grapefruit juice).
- Remove access to vehicles, sharp objects, heights, and open water before onset.
- Maintain access to water and a cool environment — hyperthermia from inability to sweat is a medical emergency.
- Know the nearest emergency department and have transportation arranged in advance.
Set & Setting
The anticholinergic delirium produced by Datura eliminates the user's ability to recognize their intoxication, distinguish hallucinations from reality, or make safety decisions. Set and setting considerations that apply to serotonergic psychedelics — comfortable environment, trusted companions, prepared mindset — offer minimal protection against a syndrome that overrides all cognitive self-monitoring. If exposure occurs, the presence of a sober, informed companion who can prevent the user from leaving the immediate area, intervene during injury risk, and call emergency services is the single most important harm-reduction measure.
Aftercare & integration. Recovery from Datura intoxication may take 24–72 hours. Dense amnesia typically prevents meaningful recall of the experience. Residual effects may include anxiety, confusion, dysphoria, visual acuity suppression, dry mouth, and urinary difficulty for 1–3 days after acute effects resolve.
Hydrate thoroughly. Eat when appetite returns. Rest in a safe, familiar environment. Visual disturbances (pupil dilation, blurred near vision) may persist for 24–48 hours after other effects resolve — avoid driving or operating machinery until vision normalizes.
If persistent psychological distress, paranoia, or psychotic symptoms emerge beyond 72 hours, seek professional psychiatric evaluation.
Recovery & Support
Datura does not typically produce physical dependence, and most individuals do not repeat the experience. If repeated use is occurring despite adverse outcomes, this may indicate a broader pattern of high-risk substance use warranting professional assessment.
For support with substance use concerns, contact:
- SAMHSA National Helpline: 1-800-662-4357 (free, confidential, 24/7)
- Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741
- Poison Control (US): 1-800-222-1222
If Datura exposure was non-consensual (drugging, criminal administration), contact local law enforcement and seek immediate medical evaluation.
Recovery resources, crisis lines, and support pathways → View all
Emergency Response
Recognizing an emergency:
Seek emergency medical attention if any of the following occur after suspected Datura exposure: rapid heart rate, fever or hot dry skin (inability to sweat), seizures, unresponsiveness, severe agitation or aggression, inability to urinate, or loss of consciousness.
Immediate steps:
- 1. Call emergency services immediately (911 / 112 / local equivalent).
- 2. Do not leave the affected person alone — they cannot distinguish hallucinations from reality and are at high risk of self-injury.
- 3. Move them to a cool environment if possible. Apply cool water to skin if body temperature appears elevated.
- 4. Do not attempt to induce vomiting.
- 5. Do not administer activated charcoal unless directed by a medical professional.
What to tell the dispatcher:
State that the person has ingested Datura (jimson weed / thorn apple) plant material. Report the approximate amount consumed, time of ingestion, and current symptoms. Mention any other substances taken. Good Samaritan laws exist in many jurisdictions and provide legal protection when reporting a drug-related emergency.
Reversal agent:
Physostigmine is the specific antidote for severe central anticholinergic syndrome. It is administered intravenously in hospital settings only — it is not available for bystander administration.
Legal Status[edit]
Neither Datura nor its primary alkaloids (hyoscyamine, scopolamine, atropine) are scheduled under any of the three major UN drug control conventions. The alkaloids are regulated as pharmaceuticals in most jurisdictions, but the plant itself is generally uncontrolled at the national level. Subnational restrictions exist in several US states, and a few countries impose specific controls.[25] Legal status data derives primarily from Erowid (2024) and may not reflect recent legislative changes — verification against official statutes is recommended.citation needed
| Jurisdiction | Status | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| United States (federal) | Unscheduled | Not listed under the Controlled Substances Act. Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are FDA-regulated pharmaceuticals when sold as medicines but not DEA-scheduled in plant form.[25] |
| Kansas | Schedule I | D. stramonium classified as Schedule I since 2008.[25] |
| Nevada | Schedule I | Controlled substance; exception for FDA-approved pharmaceutical formulations.[25] |
| Louisiana | Restricted | Illegal when intended for human consumption; legal for landscaping or decorative use.[25] |
| Connecticut | Restricted drug | Classified as restricted except for FDA-approved preparations.[25] |
| New Jersey | Controlled distribution | Distribution of Datura preparations is criminalized; the state may destroy discovered plants.[25] |
| Oklahoma | Controlled (conditional) | Controlled under synthetic substance laws when used "as a drug".[25] |
| Australia | Schedule 1 poison | Nationally prohibited substance.[25] |
| Canada | Unscheduled | Legal to grow and possess.[25] |
| United Kingdom | Legal | Not listed under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.[25] |
| India | Legal | Commonly used in religious contexts.[25] |
| Brazil | Controlled (partial) | Datura suaveolens (angel's trumpet) is a controlled substance.[25] |
| Norway | Legal (restricted import) | Legal to grow; importation by mail is prohibited.[25] |
| European Union | No EU-wide scheduling | Member states may impose restrictions. Scopolamine and atropine regulated as pharmaceuticals. Directive 2002/32/EC regulates Datura seed contamination in animal feeds at a maximum of 1000 mg/kg.[19] |
Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, hyoscyamine, atropine) are not structural analogs of any scheduled substance class and are not subject to analog act provisions in any known jurisdiction. The US Federal Analogue Act applies only to substances substantially similar to Schedule I or II compounds — tropane alkaloids fall outside this scope.
references
- [1] ^abcSharma M, Dhaliwal I, Rana K, Delta AK, Kaushik P (2021) Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicology of Datura Species—A Review — Antioxidants doi:10.3390/antiox10081291
- [2] ^abcAćimović M (2025) Datura stramonium - A Dangerous Weed and Alternative Drug of Abuse: An Overview of Poisoning Cases in 21st Century — Planta Medica doi:10.1055/a-2552-4434
- [3] ^abAlbuquerque UP et al. (2012) Natural products from ethnodirected studies: revisiting the ethnobiology of the zombie poison — Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine doi:10.1155/2012/202508
- [4] ^abSrinivasan P, Smolke CD (2020) Biosynthesis of medicinal tropane alkaloids in yeast — Nature doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2650-9
- [5]
- [6] ^abRodgers GC, Von Kanel RL (1993) Conservative treatment of jimsonweed ingestion — Veterinary and Human Toxicology PMID:8434447