Bufotenin
5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
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Bufotenin (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a naturally-occurring psychedelic of the tryptamine class. It is a close structural relative of DMT and psilocin, distinguished by minimal psychedelic potency. Bufotenin binds serotonin receptors but achieves near-zero functional activity at 5-HT₂A — a consequence of steric hindrance at the binding pocket[1] — with concurrent 5-HT₁A agonism actively suppressing residual psychedelic effects.[2]
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First isolated from toad secretion in 1893 and structurally identified in 1934,[3] bufotenin is among the oldest known indole alkaloids. Intravenous experiments in psychiatric patients during the 1950s produced dramatic cardiovascular effects but ambiguous psychedelic responses, sparking a decades-long debate over whether the compound is genuinely hallucinogenic.[4] It remains a Schedule I substance in the United States, with no clinical trials registered as of 2026.
Subjective effects include visual distortions, euphoria, bodily heaviness, and brief altered states of consciousness.[5] The smoked route bypasses the blood-brain barrier limitation that constrains systemic routes,[6] producing a heavier, more body-bound altered state than DMT with psychedelic phenomena emerging primarily at higher doses. Tachycardia, facial flushing, and anxiety are characteristic unsought effects.
No physical dependence has been identified, and the toxic dose in humans is unknown — no LD50 data exist in any species. The primary risk is cardiovascular: bufotenin directly increases heart rate and contractility via cardiac serotonin receptors,[7] and these effects are amplified by monoamine oxidase inhibitors. No controlled human studies have been conducted; the current understanding rests on 1950s case series, animal pharmacology, and structural analogy to better-characterized tryptamines.
History[edit]
Discovery
First isolated from toad secretion in 1893 by Césaire Phisalix and Gabriel Bertrand,[3][4] the compound was named "bufotenin" around 1920 by Hans Handovsky, after the toad genus Bufo.[4] Heinrich Wieland established its structure as 5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in 1934,[3] and the first total synthesis followed in 1935.[8] Serotonin itself would not be isolated until 1948, making bufotenin's structural relationship to the neurotransmitter retroactively significant.
The psychoactivity debate
In 1956, Fabing and Hawkins injected bufotenin intravenous into psychiatric patients, producing alarming cardiovascular responses — facial flushing, tachycardia, hypertension — but only equivocal psychedelic effects.[4] Subsequent experiments by Turner and Merlis yielded similar results, and the question of whether bufotenin is genuinely hallucinogenic remained unresolved for decades.[4] McBride (2000) argued that the absence of clear psychedelic effects reflected poor blood-brain barrier penetration rather than pharmacological inactivity,[6] an interpretation supported by animal data showing dramatically lower brain concentrations compared to 5-MeO-DMT.[9]
Street use and scheduling
In the early 1990s, bufotenin appeared as a street drug in New York City — identified by the NYPD crime laboratory in 42 seized samples, sold as a dark resinous material and typically smoked with marijuana.[5] The United States classifies bufotenin as Schedule I (DEA Drug Code 7403),[8][10] and it carries the highest restriction in the United Kingdom and Australia.
Bufotenin is a major alkaloid in Anadenanthera peregrina seeds, the primary component of traditional South American hallucinogenic snuffs known as yopo or cohoba.[5] Spanish colonizers documented cohoba use by Taíno people for ritual divination in the 15th–16th century,[5] and bufotenin has been identified in 1,200-year-old archaeological samples from northern Chile.[5]
The name derives from Bufo, the Latin genus for toads, coined by Handovsky around 1920.[4] The compound is also designated 5-HO-DMT and N,N-dimethylserotonin. Its association with toad venom has made it a persistent subject of psychedelic folklore, though bufotenin's actual psychoactive contribution to toad secretions — which contain many other bioactive molecules including 5-MeO-DMT — remains debated.
Chemistry[edit]
Structural class
Bufotenin belongs to the substituted tryptamine family, sharing the indole core with DMT, psilocin, and 5-MeO-DMT. It is the N,N-dimethyl structural analog of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) and the 5-hydroxy positional isomer of psilocin (4-HO-DMT) — the two differ only in which carbon on the indole ring carries the hydroxyl group.[5]
Molecular properties
| Molecular formula | C₁₂H₁₆N₂O |
| Molecular weight | 204.27 g/mol |
The molecule consists of an indole ring bearing a hydroxyl group at the 5-position and a dimethylaminoethyl side chain at the 3-position. The tertiary amine — the two methyl groups on the nitrogen — is pharmacologically decisive: it creates steric hindrance at the 5-HT₂A receptor binding pocket, preventing a hydrogen bond critical for receptor activation.[1]
Lipophilicity and membrane permeability
Bufotenin has relatively low lipophilicity (calculated log P of 0.89–2.04),[8] which directly underlies its poor blood-brain barrier penetration.[6][11] Molecular dynamics simulations confirm that bufotenin embeds in lipid membranes but cannot cross them spontaneously — unlike DMT and 5-MeO-DMT, which traverse model membranes under identical conditions.[11]
Melting point and quantitative solubility data have not been confirmed by primary peer-reviewed sources.citation needed Bufotenin N-oxide, a metabolite and naturally co-occurring compound, shows distinct membrane interaction properties compared to the parent.[12]
Natural occurrence
Bufotenin occurs across three biological kingdoms. In toads, a specialized enzyme (RmNMT) converts serotonin to bufotenin through sequential methylation in the parotid glands and skin.[13] In plants, it is a major alkaloid of Anadenanthera peregrina seeds[5] and has been isolated from Desmodium elegans leaves.[14] In fungi, it has been reported in several Amanita species.[5]
Bufotenin is produced endogenously in humans, detectable in urine under normal conditions, presumably via indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (INMT).[15][16] MAO-A is the primary enzyme maintaining low endogenous levels.[9]
Pharmacology[edit]
Mechanism of action
Bufotenin acts on multiple serotonin receptor types, but its psychedelic effects are constrained by two converging factors: poor blood-brain barrier penetration via systemic routes and a pharmacological brake in which 5-HT₁A receptor activation suppresses 5-HT₂A-mediated psychedelic activity.[6][2]
At the 5-HT₂A receptor — the primary target of serotonergic psychedelics — bufotenin binds but achieves near-zero functional activation.[8] The N,N-dimethyl group creates steric hindrance that prevents the molecule from triggering receptor signaling despite occupying the binding site.[1][17] This was demonstrated directly: bufotenin occupied roughly 22% of high-affinity 5-HT₂A agonist sites yet produced no measurable downstream signaling.[18]
At 5-HT₁A receptors, bufotenin functions as an agonist.[8] In the mouse head-twitch response — the standard animal model for psychedelic activity — bufotenin produced psychedelic-like responses only when 5-HT₁A receptors were pharmacologically blocked (ED50 = 0.99 mg/kg).[2] Without that blockade, no significant psychedelic-like activity appeared.
Bufotenin also activates cardiac 5-HT₄ receptors, directly increasing the force and rate of heart contractions in human atrial tissue.[7] This mechanism accounts for the prominent cardiovascular effects observed in human experiments across all routes. At 5-HT₂C receptors, bufotenin displays biased signaling — its activation pattern differs from other serotonin agonists, favoring one intracellular pathway over another.[19]
Pharmacokinetics
No human pharmacokinetic data have been published for any route. All quantitative information derives from animal studies.
In rats, subcutaneous bufotenin concentrates in the lungs, heart, and blood but reaches the brain at levels roughly 15 times lower than 5-MeO-DMT.[9][8] Elimination is nearly complete by 8 hours. The primary breakdown enzyme is MAO-A,[9] producing the same metabolite as serotonin (5-HIAA), which accounts for approximately 70% of the dose.[9] Only about 4% is eliminated unchanged. Unlike serotonin, bufotenin is not stored in platelets — over 99% remains in cell-free plasma.[9]
The smoked route — the primary route producing psychoactive effects — has no published pharmacokinetic data. The rapid onset and short duration reported by users are consistent with other smoked tryptamines but remain unvalidated.citation needed
Neuroscience[edit]
Where it acts
No human neuroimaging or electrophysiology studies of bufotenin have been published. When applied directly to rat brain neurons, bufotenin demonstrated clear central activity by antagonizing serotonin-driven excitations,[20] and direct injection into the brain stimulated prolactin release[21] — confirming the compound is centrally active when it reaches the brain.
Under normal use conditions, bufotenin's near-zero 5-HT₂A efficacy and concurrent 5-HT₁A agonism challenge whether the cortical disruption patterns characteristic of classic psychedelics are meaningfully engaged. The 5-HT₁A component would instead produce modulatory, potentially calming effects without the surge in neural complexity that defines the DMT or psilocin experience.
Why it matters
The theoretical framework most directly connected to bufotenin is the transmethylation hypothesis — the proposal that endogenous overproduction of methylated tryptamines, including bufotenin, contributes to psychotic symptoms.[16] Systematic review has found consistent elevations of urinary bufotenin in schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder,[15] though whether these elevations are causally significant or simply reflect altered tryptophan metabolism remains unresolved.
What is the actual receptor occupancy in the human brain after smoked administration? Does endogenous bufotenin serve a functional role in normal brain chemistry, or is it merely a metabolic byproduct of INMT activity?
Subjective Effects[edit]
The bufotenin experience is defined by the dominance of body over mind. Cardiovascular and somatic effects — flushing, tachycardia, a pressing physical weight — are the most reliable features across all routes and doses, often overshadowing whatever psychedelic dimension emerges.[6][7] Via the smoked route, a brief psychedelic window opens alongside this somatic load, its character strongly modulated by set and setting — the intense body effects can register as euphoric immersion or anxious overwhelm depending on context.
Compared to DMT — its closest relative by duration and structure — bufotenin produces a markedly more body-dominant, less visually elaborate experience. Where DMT rapidly unfolds into vivid visual and transpersonal territory, bufotenin's constrained receptor activity yields a heavier, more physically grounded altered state that users describe as psychedelic only at higher doses.
Effect Grid
At common doses, the psychedelic character of bufotenin becomes apparent via the smoked route: visual drifting, color alteration, and geometric patterning emerge alongside emotional enhancement and thought connectivity. Euphoria is frequently reported. The experience has a compressed, intense quality — effects build rapidly (within seconds of inhalation) and peak within minutes.
Cardiovascular effects are pronounced — tachycardia, facial flushing, vasoconstriction (cold extremities, bodily pressures), and elevated blood pressure are the norm rather than the exception. Nausea and bodily heaviness are common. Motor control may be mildly impaired. The total experience typically spans 30-60 minutes when smoked.
Modeled from the effect's dose-dependence curve — not per-substance measurements.
Ganzfeld effect · Color enhancement · Vestibular distortion · Brightness alteration · Spatial disorientation · Visual breathing · Visual morphing · Touch enhancement · Music enhancement · After-images · Auditory distortion · Auditory enhancement · Depth perception distortion · Light sensitivity · Peripheral vision distortion · Perspective distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Sound sensitivity · Symmetrical texture repetition · Tracers · Visual diffraction · Visual haze / noise · Visual melting · Auditory misinterpretation · Peripheral misidentification · Synesthesia · Visual magnification · Visual acuity enhancement · Visual processing acceleration · Tinnitus · Internal hallucinations · Visual recursion · External hallucinations · Environmental orbism / cubism · Object transformations · Auditory hallucinations · Object activation · Perspective hallucinations · Visual flipping · Visual scenery slicing
Spatial disorientation · Visual breathing · Visual morphing · Touch enhancement · Music enhancement · After-images · Auditory distortion · Auditory enhancement · Depth perception distortion · Light sensitivity · Peripheral vision distortion · Perspective distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Sound sensitivity · Symmetrical texture repetition · Tracers · Visual diffraction · Visual haze / noise · Visual melting · Auditory misinterpretation · Peripheral misidentification · Synesthesia · Visual magnification · Visual acuity enhancement · Visual processing acceleration · Tinnitus · Internal hallucinations · Visual recursion · External hallucinations · Environmental orbism / cubism · Object transformations · Auditory hallucinations · Object activation · Perspective hallucinations · Visual flipping · Visual scenery slicing
Pupil dilation · Spontaneous body sensations · Bodily heaviness · Temperature dysregulation · Wakefulness · Body high · Dizziness · Heart rate perception changes · Tingling / electric sensations · Vibrations / buzzing · Appetite suppression · Body schema distortion · Breathing alteration · Excessive sweating · Muscle tension · Physical fatigue · Restlessness · Trembling · Involuntary body movements · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Salivation · Tactile euphoria · Vomiting · Watery eyes · Bodily dissociation · Tactile hallucination
Wakefulness · Body high · Dizziness · Heart rate perception changes · Tingling / electric sensations · Vibrations / buzzing · Appetite suppression · Body schema distortion · Breathing alteration · Excessive sweating · Muscle tension · Physical fatigue · Restlessness · Trembling · Involuntary body movements · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Salivation · Tactile euphoria · Vomiting · Watery eyes · Bodily dissociation · Tactile hallucination
Cognitive impairment · Confusion · Focus suppression · Immersion enhancement · Introspection enhancement · Novelty enhancement · Thought disorganization · Aesthetic enhancement · Analysis suppression · Cognitive dysphoria · Cognitive fatigue · Cognitive flexibility · Information processing suppression · Memory fragmentation · Multiple thought streams · Openness enhancement · Pattern recognition enhancement · Thought acceleration · Thought loops · Analysis enhancement · Creativity enhancement · Cognitive euphoria · Increased nature relatedness · Language suppression · Memory replays · Motivation suppression · Synchronicity · Thought deceleration · Information processing enhancement · Amnesia · Delusions · Delirium
Immersion enhancement · Introspection enhancement · Novelty enhancement · Thought disorganization · Aesthetic enhancement · Analysis suppression · Cognitive dysphoria · Cognitive fatigue · Cognitive flexibility · Information processing suppression · Memory fragmentation · Multiple thought streams · Openness enhancement · Pattern recognition enhancement · Thought acceleration · Thought loops · Analysis enhancement · Creativity enhancement · Cognitive euphoria · Increased nature relatedness · Language suppression · Memory replays · Motivation suppression · Synchronicity · Thought deceleration · Information processing enhancement · Delusions · Delirium
Catharsis · Dysphoria · Simultaneous emotions · Empathy enhancement · Anxiety suppression · Irritability
Anxiety suppression · Irritability
Sociability suppression · Social disconnection · Disinhibition · Social connection · Flow state · Boundary dissolution · Cognitive disconnection · Ego dissolution · Identity alteration · Telepathic feelings
Flow state · Boundary dissolution · Cognitive disconnection · Ego dissolution · Identity alteration · Telepathic feelings
Time cessation
Non-dual awareness · Transpersonal feelings · Transpersonal visions · Cessation · Near-death experience · Transpersonal memory access · Voidness
Near-death experience · Transpersonal memory access · Voidness
Recursive awareness
Timeline
Effects appear within seconds of inhalation — a rush of warmth, facial flushing, and a rapid shift in body awareness. Cardiovascular changes (increased heart rate, blood pressure rise) begin almost immediately.
Intensity escalates rapidly over 30 seconds to 2 minutes. Visual changes, bodily heaviness, and emotional amplification build concurrently with pronounced cardiovascular effects. The transition from first alerts to approaching peak is compressed compared to most psychedelics.
Maximum intensity spans roughly 5-20 minutes. Visual phenomena, thought connectivity, euphoria or anxiety, and cardiovascular effects are all at their strongest. The brevity and intensity create a compressed, immersive quality distinct from longer-acting tryptamines.
Effects diminish steadily over 10-45 minutes. Visuals fade, emotional intensity subsides, and cardiovascular effects gradually normalize. Residual bodily heaviness and mild disorientation may persist.
A mild residual state lasting 30 minutes to 2 hours — subtle mood changes, lingering body awareness, and gentle fatigue. Cardiovascular parameters typically return to baseline during this phase.
⚠ Do not drive or operate machinery until all residual effects have fully resolved, which may take several hours after smoking.
Safety[edit]
- Acute toxicity
- Moderate
- Chronic toxicity
- Low
- Withdrawal
- None
- Tolerance buildup
- rapid
- Tolerance reset
- 2 hours
- Physical
- None
- Psychological
- Negligible
- Compulsive redosing
- Negligible
- Dose escalation
- Negligible
- Cross-tol.
- DMT · 5-MeO-DMT · psilo
Toxicity
No lethal dose has been established for bufotenin in any species. The toxic dose in humans is unknown, and no therapeutic index can be calculated.
Cardiovascular toxicity
The most clearly documented risk is cardiovascular. Bufotenin constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure,[3] while directly increasing heart rate and the force of heart contractions via serotonin₄ receptors — confirmed in isolated human heart tissue.[7] These cardiac effects are amplified by monoamine oxidase inhibitors.[7]
Historical intravenous experiments in the 1950s consistently produced alarming cardiovascular responses — facial flushing, racing heart, and dangerous blood pressure spikes — at doses intended to achieve psychedelic effects.[4][6]
Respiratory effects
Some historical reports describe breathing difficulty after systemic administration. The mechanism is unclear — possibly related to effects on lung blood vessels or secondary to anxiety.[6]
Stress response
Bufotenin activates the body's stress hormone system (HPA axis) in rats, increasing corticosterone levels through a mechanism distinct from typical serotonin-mediated pathways.[9]
Psychological risks
No controlled assessment of psychological risks exists. The transmethylation hypothesis proposes that endogenous bufotenin overproduction may contribute to psychotic symptoms,[16][15] but whether exogenous administration reliably induces psychosis-like states is undetermined.
Anxiety is reported in user experience databases and is consistent with serotonergic activation. Delusions and amnesia appear in community-sourced effect lists but lack published clinical documentation for bufotenin specifically.citation needed
Tolerance & Dependence
Tolerance reportedly develops almost immediately after use and resets within approximately 2 hours, consistent with other short-acting tryptamines — though these values are not confirmed by bufotenin-specific research and likely represent extrapolation from DMT or 5-MeO-DMT.inferred
No physical dependence or withdrawal has been identified. This is consistent with the class-wide observation that serotonergic psychedelics show low abuse potential and no recognized physical dependence. Cross-tolerance with other psychedelics (psilocin, DMT, LSD) is expected but unconfirmed for bufotenin specifically.inferred
Drug Interactions
Tramadol
Combining bufotenin with tramadol creates risk of serotonin syndrome. Tramadol inhibits serotonin reuptake and has been implicated in fatal serotonin toxicity when combined with MAO inhibitors.[22][23] Bufotenin adds direct serotonin receptor activation and is itself broken down by MAO-A.[9] The combination produces dual serotonergic loading: direct receptor activation plus increased serotonin from blocked reuptake. This supports a dangerous interaction classification, though no bufotenin-specific case reports exist.
MAO inhibitors
Co-administration with MAO inhibitors is a critical concern. MAO-A is bufotenin's primary breakdown enzyme;[9] blocking it dramatically slows clearance, extends duration, and raises blood levels. In isolated human heart tissue, an MAO inhibitor amplified bufotenin's cardiac effects.[7] Traditional Anadenanthera snuff preparations may have contained naturally occurring MAO inhibitors from co-administered plants. Serotonin syndrome risk is elevated with any MAO inhibitor combination.safety citation needed
Cannabis
No interaction data exist between cannabis and bufotenin. Historical forensic analysis documented that street bufotenin in New York City was typically smoked with marijuana,[5] indicating co-use occurs, but no safety data on this combination have been published.
SSRIs and SNRIs
No bufotenin-specific data exist. Chronic SSRI use may blunt bufotenin's effects through receptor changes; acute co-use adds serotonergic load. This is a class-level inference.inferred
Contraindications
No published clinical contraindication guidelines specific to bufotenin exist. The following are inferred from pharmacological data.Heart conditions, high blood pressure, and irregular heart rhythm represent the most significant contraindication. Bufotenin directly increases heart rate and contraction force via cardiac 5-HT₄ receptors,[7] and constricts blood vessels, creating substantial cardiovascular risk for anyone with pre-existing cardiac conditions.
Concurrent MAO inhibitor use is contraindicated because MAO-A is bufotenin's primary metabolic pathway.[9] Blocking this enzyme prevents clearance, dramatically increasing exposure and serotonin syndrome risk.
Concurrent serotonergic medications (SSRIs, SNRIs, tramadol) add to total serotonergic burden, raising serotonin syndrome risk.
Personal or family history of psychotic disorders is a relative contraindication consistent with psychedelic class guidance, though bufotenin-specific evidence is absent.inferred
Harm Reduction[edit]
Forms & Identification
Bufotenin reaches users in forms that vary enormously in purity and composition. Anadenanthera seeds and toad-derived secretions contain bufotenin alongside many other alkaloids — including 5-MeO-DMT and cardiac glycosides in toad venom — making the actual bufotenin content of any natural preparation unpredictable. The dark resinous material historically sold as street bufotenin in the 1990s was identified only through forensic laboratory analysis.[5] Reagent testing cannot isolate bufotenin from structurally similar tryptamines in natural preparations; analytical confirmation requires specialized methods beyond standard field kits.
Guidelines
- Test material with reagent kits where possible, recognizing that standard kits cannot distinguish bufotenin from other tryptamines in natural preparations.
- Start with the lowest amount when working with unfamiliar material — potency varies unpredictably across natural sources.
- Use only in a seated or reclined position. The rapid cardiovascular effects make standing or moving during onset risky.
- Have a sober sitter present who understands the short duration and the dominance of physical effects.
- Do not combine with monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tramadol, SSRIs, or other serotonergic substances.
- Avoid use entirely if you have any heart condition, hypertension, or irregular heart rhythm.
- Allow at least 2 hours between attempts — rapid tolerance development means immediate re-dosing increases cardiovascular load without proportional psychoactive effect.
Set & Setting
The intense cardiovascular and somatic effects of bufotenin make physical environment particularly important. The body load — flushing, pressure, racing heart — can easily tip into anxiety or panic in unfamiliar or stimulating surroundings. A calm, seated environment with a trusted sitter is essential, especially given the brief but intense onset when smoked. Users should be prepared for an experience dominated by physical sensation rather than classic psychedelic visuals.
Aftercare & integration. The bufotenin experience is brief but can be physically intense. After the acute effects resolve, rest and hydration support recovery from the cardiovascular stress. The somatic dominance of the experience — flushing, pressure, heart pounding — can leave residual anxiety about physical health; this typically resolves within hours.
If the experience produced distressing altered states or panic, journaling or talking through the experience with a trusted person can help process it. The brevity of bufotenin's effects means integration often focuses more on the body's response than on psychological content. Persistent anxiety, chest discomfort, or cardiovascular symptoms beyond 24 hours warrant medical evaluation.
Recovery & Support
Bufotenin does not produce physical dependence, and compulsive use patterns have not been documented. If use becomes a coping mechanism or part of a broader pattern of substance use, general psychedelic harm reduction resources and peer support communities can provide guidance. For individuals experiencing persistent psychological distress following any psychedelic experience, professional support from a therapist familiar with psychedelic experiences is recommended.
Recovery resources, crisis lines, and support pathways → View all
Emergency Response
Recognizing an emergency: chest pain, severe headache, difficulty breathing, loss of consciousness, or heart rate that remains dangerously elevated beyond the expected short duration distinguish a medical emergency from uncomfortable but self-limiting effects. Persistent blue or grey skin color around the lips or fingers indicates oxygen compromise.
- Call emergency services immediately if chest pain, difficulty breathing, loss of consciousness, or seizure occurs.
- Place the person in a comfortable seated position. If unconscious and breathing, use the recovery position.
- Do not attempt to make the person vomit.
- Monitor breathing and heart rate while waiting for help.
- Keep the environment calm and quiet — reduce stimulation.
Tell the dispatcher: the substance involved (bufotenin or toad-derived/seed-derived material), the route of administration, approximate time of use, and current symptoms. Good Samaritan laws in many jurisdictions protect people who call for help during a drug emergency.
Legal Status[edit]
Bufotenin is explicitly scheduled as a controlled substance in multiple jurisdictions. Unlike some novel tryptamines that fall under structural analog act provisions, bufotenin is named specifically in most scheduling frameworks, reflecting its long regulatory history. The compound carries DEA Drug Code 7403 in the United States.[8][10]
| Jurisdiction | Classification | Key provisions |
|---|---|---|
| United States | Schedule I (Controlled Substances Act) | DEA Drug Code 7403; classified as hallucinogen[8][10] |
| Illinois (US) | Schedule I | State-level scheduling effective February 2, 1996; listed under alternative names including mappine and N,N-dimethylserotonin[24] |
| United Kingdom | Class A, Schedule I (Misuse of Drugs Act 1971) | Most restrictive classification[8][10] |
| Australia | Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance) | Under the Poisons Standard; 6 g triggers trial, 2 g indicates intent to supply[8] |
| New Zealand | Class A | Most restrictive category[10] |
| South Africa | Undesirable Dependence-Producing Substance | Listed under Drug and Drug Trafficking Act No. 140 of 1992[10] |
| Canada | Not explicitly scheduled | As of 2025[8] |
| Sweden | Suggested hazardous substance | Classification suggested May 2019[8] |
EU member state-specific legal status beyond Sweden and the United Kingdom has not been confirmed by accessible sources. The legal status of toad-derived preparations containing bufotenin varies and may be subject to wildlife protection legislation independent of controlled substance scheduling.
references
- [1] ^abcAlmaula N, Ebersole BJ, Zhang D, Weinstein H, Sealfon SC (1996) Mapping the binding site pocket of the serotonin 5-Hydroxytryptamine2A receptor. Ser3.36(159) provides a second interaction site for the protonated amine of serotonin but not of lysergic acid diethylamide or bufotenin. — Journal of Biological Chemistry PMID:8663249
- [2] ^abcdMaitland AD, Gonzalez NR, Walther D, Pereira F, Baumann MH, Glatfelter GC (2025) Rapid, open-source, and automated quantification of the head twitch response in C57BL/6J mice using DeepLabCut and Simple Behavioral Analysis. — bioRxiv (preprint) doi:10.1101/2025.04.28.650242
- [3]
- [4]
- [5]
- [6]