generation run 2026-05-14
66 min completedmodel pipeline-v5plan not recordedrun/0b6182ac…Selection
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3 further caveats recorded as free text — readable on the working page
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- 31 source keys (listed under Sources)
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32 searches — query, source, results, what was kept and why
| # | source | query | seen | kept | rationale |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | PubChem | atropine compound lookup | 1 | 1 | Chemical identity verification of primary alkaloid |
| 2 | OpenAlex | Atropa belladonna deadly nightshade history ethnobotany | 30 | 2 | Fatur & Kreft directly examines Atropa belladonna use traditions; Perry reviews historical cholinergic plant use |
| 3 | PubMed | atropine pharmacokinetics oral bioavailability half-life human | 6 | 1 | Comprehensive PK/PD review of scopolamine with CYP enzyme data |
| 4 | ClinicalTrials.gov | Atropa belladonna scopolamine atropine therapeutic | 10 | 1 | Only directly relevant belladonna trial found |
| 5 | POWO | — | — | 1 | Direct taxonomy verification from authoritative source |
| 6 | PubMed | Atropa belladonna alkaloids atropine scopolamine hyoscyamine phytochemistry | 1 | 1 | Key biosynthesis paper for understanding alkaloid profile |
| 7 | PubChem | scopolamine compound lookup | 1 | 1 | Chemical identity verification of secondary major alkaloid |
| 8 | OpenAlex | Atropa belladonna tropane alkaloids pharmacology | 443 | 2 | Tropane alkaloid biosynthesis paper relevant; aerosol history paper covers historical belladonna use for smoking |
| 9 | PubMed | belladonna deadly nightshade poisoning children accidental ingestion berries | 3 | 2 | Unique papers - Lacković covers intentional use history; Schneider provides pharmacokinetic data |
| 10 | PubChem | hyoscyamine compound lookup | 1 | 1 | Chemical identity verification of dominant native alkaloid - hyoscyamine is the actual plant alkaloid (atropine is the racemic form) |
| 11 | PubMed | Atropa belladonna toxicity poisoning case report adverse effects | 15 | 8 | All are relevant case reports or reviews of Atropa belladonna toxicity |
| 12 | PubMed | scopolamine atropine deliriant hallucination delirium CNS effects | 10 | 3 | Key reviews of deliriant pharmacology relevant to effects section |
| 13 | Web | Atropa belladonna taxonomy POWO Plants of the World Online family Solanaceae classification | 10 | 1 | Authoritative taxonomy source |
| 14 | PubMed | PMID 17345349 - Alkaloid composition Atropa belladonna GLC GC-MS | 1 | 1 | Primary source for alkaloid distribution across plant parts |
| 15 | Erowid | — | — | 1 | Legal status details |
| 16 | PubMed | scopolamine transdermal pharmacokinetics motion sickness | 1 | 1 | Detailed scopolamine transdermal PK data |
| 17 | PubMed | PMID 10989174 - hairy roots Atropa belladonna tropane alkaloids | 1 | 1 | Provides alkaloid content data for intact plant roots |
| 18 | OpenAlex | Atropa belladonna deadly nightshade alkaloid composition pharmacology review | 86 | 2 | Key safety/toxicology reference documents |
| 19 | Web | Atropa belladonna legal status United States DEA scheduling | 10 | 1 | Legal status for US section |
| 20 | Web | belladonna alkaloid content mg per berry leaf root quantification | 10 | 2 | Alkaloid quantification data |
| 21 | Web | Atropa belladonna witches ointment flying ointment history medieval scopolamine | 10 | 1 | Historical ethnobotanical context |
| 22 | PubMed | PMID 17575737 - Solanaceae IV Atropa belladonna | 1 | 1 | Key historical and botanical review for belladonna |
| 23 | PubMed | PMID 36109439 - Beauty of the beast tropane alkaloids | 1 | 1 | Comprehensive therapeutic overview of belladonna alkaloids |
| 24 | PubMed | PMID 30566832 full retrieval | 1 | 1 | Core pharmacology/effects review |
| 25 | Web | EMA HMPC belladonna herbal monograph traditional use | 10 | 0 | Attempted EMA regulatory data retrieval - insufficient |
| 26 | StatPearls/NIH | — | — | 1 | Authoritative atropine pharmacokinetic reference |
| 27 | Multiple | Cross-reference alkaloid content data across sources | — | 1 | Data quality assessment across multiple sources |
| 28 | PubMed | PMID 37030199 | 1 | 1 | Key data on detection window for scopolamine in different biological matrices |
| 29 | PubMed | PMID 29808589 | 1 | 1 | Quantitative alkaloid content from validated analytical method |
| 30 | Web | FDA belladonna homeopathic teething tablets warning recall 2016 2017 seizures infants | 10 | 1 | Key regulatory action and adulterant/contaminant risk for safety section |
| 31 | Web | belladonna leaf European Pharmacopoeia traditional herbal registration UK MHRA | 10 | 0 | European regulatory context - limited specific data found |
| 32 | Web | Atropa belladonna Australia UK legal controlled substance Misuse of Drugs Act | 10 | 1 | International legal status - low confidence, flagged for review |
74 claims by section — every cited sentence, checked against its source
safety27 · 18 ok
The EFSA acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.016 µg/kg body weight for the sum of (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine represents the threshold at which pharmacological effects (decreased heart rate) begin in humans — orders of magnitude below lethal exposuresupported
Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) established at 0.016 µg/kg body weight. Based on human volunteer study showing decreased heart rate. j.efsa.2013.3386
Raw leaf ingestion has caused anticholinergic syndrome requiring ICU admissionsupported
Describes two cases of anticholinergic toxicity from raw leaf ingestion. Symptoms: dry mouth, mydriasis, tachycardia, delirium. 5411258
An 11-year-old was poisoned when belladonna was administered to her therapeutically for jaundice, developing central anticholinergic syndromesupported
11-year-old girl poisoned therapeutically - presented with central anticholinergic syndrome. pmid:22655106
A series of nine poisonings in Turkey documented unusual complications including acute subdural hematoma, acute pancreatitis, and rhabdomyolysispartially supported
Series of nine cases of belladonna poisoning in Turkey; one case with acute subdural hematoma. 0960327111407225
A prepared herbal extract (50 mL, equivalent to 15 mg atropine) caused anticholinergic syndrome requiring mechanical ventilation in an experienced herbalistsupported
50-year-old trained herbalist ingested ~50mL Atropa belladonna preparation equivalent to 15mg atropine. Acute anticholinergic syndrome, mechanically ventilated in ICU. bcr-2015-209333
Cooked berries retain full alkaloid content; plasma atropine was confirmed after ingestion of cooked berries.supported
Adult intoxication from cooked berries; atropine measured in plasma and urine. pmid:8632502
The classic anticholinergic toxidrome presents as: mydriasis, tachycardia (typically 100–150 bpm), dry flushed skin, hyperthermia (due to anhidrosis), urinary retention, absent bowel sounds, and delirium. Physostigmine (0.5–2 mg IV), a cholinesterase inhibitor that crosses the blood-brain barrier, is the specific antidote for central anticholinergic syndrome, though its efficacy is not universal — one case report documents treatment failuresupported
Symptoms: dry mouth, mydriasis, tachycardia, delirium. Management: hydration, benzodiazepines; physostigmine recommended for severe neurological symptoms. 5411258
The classic anticholinergic toxidrome presents as: mydriasis, tachycardia (typically 100–150 bpm), dry flushed skin, hyperthermia (due to anhidrosis), urinary retention, absent bowel sounds, and delirium. Physostigmine (0.5–2 mg IV), a cholinesterase inhibitor that crosses the blood-brain barrier, is the specific antidote for central anticholinergic syndrome, though its efficacy is not universal — one case report documents treatment failuresupported
11-year-old girl poisoned therapeutically - presented with central anticholinergic syndrome. Treatment: activated charcoal, physostigmine in severe cases. pmid:22655106
The classic anticholinergic toxidrome presents as: mydriasis, tachycardia (typically 100–150 bpm), dry flushed skin, hyperthermia (due to anhidrosis), urinary retention, absent bowel sounds, and delirium. Physostigmine (0.5–2 mg IV), a cholinesterase inhibitor that crosses the blood-brain barrier, is the specific antidote for central anticholinergic syndrome, though its efficacy is not universal — one case report documents treatment failuresupported
Physostigmine treatment ineffective. Atropine levels reported in urine. pmid:10944889
Contamination of commercial herbal teas with tropane alkaloids has caused severe anticholinergic poisoning despite GMP compliancesupported
Documents severe life-threatening anticholinergic intoxication from contaminated herbal tea product, despite GMP and quality control. pmid:28612694
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
The clinical presentation can be indistinguishable from acute psychosis; differential diagnosis includes neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndromesupported
anticholinergic syndrome; differential diagnosis includes acute psychosis pmid:11109424
A survey of recreational hallucinogen users in Slovenia found that anticholinergic plants were avoided specifically because of the dysphoric and uncontrollable nature of the experience.supported
Found knowledge largely lost; documents historical use decline, toxicity concerns. journal.pone.0247688
The mechanism is pharmacodynamic (competitive M-receptor antagonism at the same receptor population), and the interaction is well established at the receptor level.supported
Mechanism: competitive ACh antagonism at muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. s13659-022-00357-w
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Physostigmine is used therapeutically as the specific antidote for central anticholinergic syndrome.supported
physostigmine recommended for severe neurological symptoms 5411258
Physostigmine is used therapeutically as the specific antidote for central anticholinergic syndrome.supported
Treatment: activated charcoal, physostigmine in severe cases. pmid:22655106
Pregnancy (relative): both atropine and scopolamine cross the placenta; teratogenicity has not been established, but use during pregnancy requires clinical monitoring.supported
placental crossing confirmed pmid:16175141
Psychiatric history (relative): anticholinergic delirium may be particularly distressing and prolonged in individuals with psychiatric vulnerability; clinical presentation can mimic acute psychosis.supported
anticholinergic syndrome; differential diagnosis includes acute psychosis pmid:11109424
Concurrent anticholinergic medication (relative): additive muscarinic blockade increases risk of precipitating severe anticholinergic toxicity.supported
Mechanism: competitive ACh antagonism at muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. s13659-022-00357-w
Claim in safety — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
alkaloid-profile10 · 6 ok
UHPLC-Orbitrap analysis of seeds confirmed 338 mg/kg (0.034%) atropine and 32.1 mg/kg scopolaminesupported
UHPLC-Orbitrap analysis: seeds contain 338 mg/kg atropine and 32.1 mg/kg scopolamine. dta.2416
In belladonna ointment preparations, concentrations reached 4,007 µg/kg atropine and 1,139 µg/kg scopolaminesupported
Belladonna ointment: 4007 and 1139 µg/kg. dta.2416
Roots are the primary biosynthesis site, with intact root tissue containing approximately 0.3 mg/g dry weight total alkaloidssupported
Intact roots contain 0.3 mg/g DW total alkaloids. pmid:10989174
Claim in alkaloid-profile — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in alkaloid-profile — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in alkaloid-profile — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Scopolamine is synthesized exclusively in roots via the enzyme hyoscyamine 6β-hydroxylase (H6H), then transported to aerial partssupported
Scopolamine synthesized in roots, excreted to medium in root cultures. pmid:17345349
Claim in alkaloid-profile — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
GLC/GC-MS analysis identified 13 alkaloids in roots and 7 in aboveground parts; hygrines (hygrine, cuscohygrine) — early biosynthetic intermediates — are absent from aerial tissue, while norhyoscyamine and hyoscyamine N-oxide are present in shoots.supported
GLC/GC-MS analysis: 13 alkaloids in roots, 7 in aboveground parts. Hygrines absent above ground. Norhyoscyamine in plant shoots. Hyoscyamine N-oxide found in multiple organs. pmid:17345349
Both hyoscyamine and scopolamine are water-soluble and survive aqueous extraction and cooking — plasma atropine has been confirmed after ingestion of cooked belladonna berriessupported
Adult intoxication from cooked berries; atropine measured in plasma and urine. pmid:8632502
history10 · 8 ok
Scopolamine's transdermal absorption — enabling psychotropic effects without the higher fatality risk of oral dosing — is pharmacologically confirmed.supported
transdermal system delivers 0.5mg over 72h pmid:16175141
A survey of recreational hallucinogen users in Slovenia found that knowledge of anticholinergic Solanaceae use has largely been lost, attributed to the undesirable character of the experience and high toxicity risk relative to other available substances.supported
Survey of knowledge of anticholinergic Solanaceae among recreational hallucinogen users in Slovenia. Found knowledge largely lost; documents historical use decline, toxicity concerns. journal.pone.0247688
Claim in history — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Greeks and Romans recognized A. belladonna as a deadly poison, and ancient Egyptian medical sources reference therapeutic aerosol use of related anticholinergic compounds dating back approximately 3,500 years.supported
Traces 3500-year history of therapeutic aerosols, highlighting atropine/belladonna delivery as crucial inhalation therapy throughout history. jamp.2016.1297
In medieval Europe, belladonna occupied three intersecting domains: medicine, professional poisoning, and witchcraftsupported
Review covering Atropa belladonna history from Greek/Roman antiquity through medieval witchcraft and poisoning. pmid:17575737
Claim in history — not_supportednot supportedworking →
The pure alkaloid L-atropine was isolated from belladonna in the 1830ssupported
1830s atropine isolation from plant pmid:17575737
This proved a landmark research tool: atropine's ability to block muscarinic effects of vagus nerve stimulation led directly to the identification of acetylcholine as a mammalian neurotransmitter — a foundational discovery in autonomic neurosciencesupported
its significance to autonomic nervous system research and identification of acetylcholine as neurotransmitter. pmid:17575737
Inhaled belladonna preparations (burning dried plant material, medicinal cigarettes) were widely used to treat asthma and bronchial conditions throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, giving rise to the modern anticholinergic bronchodilator drug class (ipratropium, tiotropium).supported
Traces 3500-year history of therapeutic aerosols, highlighting atropine/belladonna delivery as crucial inhalation therapy throughout history. jamp.2016.1297
Lacković (2017) documented a previously unreported tradition of intentional hallucinogenic use of belladonna berries in continental Croatia during the 20th century, referred to locally as "bunanje"supported
Documents traditional intentional use of belladonna berries for hallucinogenic effects in 20th-century Croatia - no previous published reports. psyd.2017.379
neuroscience10 · 7 ok
Transdermal delivery (TTS patch) provides 0.5 mg over 72 hours, reaching a protective plasma concentration of approximately 50 pg/mL at 6 hours and steady state of approximately 100 pg/mL at 8–12 hourssupported
TTS-scopolamine delivers 0.5mg over 72h; protective plasma concentration 50pg/mL; steady state ~100pg/mL at 8-12h. pmid:16719539
The European Food Safety Authority established an acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.016 µg/kg body weight for the sum of (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine, based on a human volunteer study demonstrating decreased heart rate at this exposure levelsupported
Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) established at 0.016 µg/kg body weight for sum of (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine. Based on human volunteer study showing decreased heart rate. j.efsa.2013.3386
Both hyoscyamine/atropine and scopolamine are non-selective muscarinic antagonists, blocking M1, M2, and M3 receptor subtypes.supported
Covers muscarinic M-receptor antagonism, clinical uses, psychotropic effects. acschemneuro.8b00615
Both hyoscyamine/atropine and scopolamine are non-selective muscarinic antagonists, blocking M1, M2, and M3 receptor subtypes.supported
Mechanism: competitive ACh antagonism at muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. s13659-022-00357-w
Claim in neuroscience — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Characteristic features include true hallucinations (visual and auditory) that are indistinguishable from reality rather than recognized as drug-induced, profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia, thought disorganization rather than insight-generating cognition, and concurrent peripheral anticholinergic signssupported
Covers psychotropic effects (delirium, hallucinations, altered mood, cognitive deficits). acschemneuro.8b00615
Behavioral modeling in zebrafish has demonstrated dose-dependent disruption of locomotion, anxiety-like behavior, and shoaling patterns with both atropine and scopolamine, supporting the translational relevance of preclinical deliriant modelssupported
Characterized behavioral effects of atropine and scopolamine in zebrafish models. Dose-dependent effects: locomotion, anxiety-like behavior, shoaling disruption. j.bbr.2018.10.033
Claim in neuroscience — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Claim in neuroscience — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Both scopolamine and atropine cross the placenta; use in pregnancy requires monitoring.supported
placental crossing confirmed pmid:16175141
preparations7 · 6 ok
One documented case involved ingestion of 50 mL of a commercially purchased A. belladonna preparation, equivalent to approximately 15 mg atropine, by a trained herbalist — resulting in acute anticholinergic syndrome requiring ICU admission and mechanical ventilationsupported
50-year-old trained herbalist ingested ~50mL Atropa belladonna preparation equivalent to 15mg atropine. Acute anticholinergic syndrome, mechanically ventilated in ICU. bcr-2015-209333
UHPLC-Orbitrap analysis detected 4.57 µg/kg atropine and 2.56 µg/kg scopolamine in homeopathic productssupported
Homeopathic products: 4.57 and 2.56 µg/kg. dta.2416
Case reports document serious anticholinergic poisoning from ingestion of 20–25 berries in a 9-year-old child and severe poisoning requiring ICU admission in adultssupported
9-year-old boy ate 20-25 berries; presented with acute psychosis-like picture; serious atropine poisoning; treated with IV physostigmine; survived. pmid:2330633
Claim in preparations — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
Plasma atropine was confirmed in two adults who consumed pie made from frozen belladonna berries mistaken for bilberriessupported
Adult intoxication from cooked berries; atropine measured in plasma and urine. pmid:8632502
Dried leaf was historically smoked or burned as an asthma treatment.supported
Traces 3500-year history of therapeutic aerosols, highlighting atropine/belladonna delivery as crucial inhalation therapy throughout history. jamp.2016.1297
Scopolamine's confirmed transdermal bioavailability provides the pharmacological basis for this routesupported
transdermal system delivers 0.5mg over 72h pmid:16175141
summary5 · 4 ok
It produces tropane alkaloids — principally (-)-hyoscyamine (which racemizes to atropine upon extraction) and scopolamine (hyoscine) — that act as non-selective muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, making it one of the most pharmacologically potent deliriant plantssupported
Review of anticholinergic deliriant drugs including atropine and scopolamine. Covers muscarinic M-receptor antagonism, clinical uses, psychotropic effects. acschemneuro.8b00615
Isolation of L-atropine from the plant in the 1830s proved foundational to neuroscience: atropine's muscarinic blockade enabled the identification of acetylcholine as a mammalian neurotransmittersupported
1830s atropine isolation from plant, its significance to autonomic nervous system research and identification of acetylcholine as neurotransmitter. pmid:17575737
Both atropine and scopolamine remain on the WHO List of Essential Medicines, with approved clinical applications including cardiac vagolysis, bronchodilation, and nerve agent antidote usesupported
Clinical uses: antiemetics, anesthetics, antispasmodics, bronchodilators, mydriatics. WHO essential medicine list. s13659-022-00357-w
Claim in summary — inconclusiveinconclusiveworking →
No controlled human dose-finding studies exist for whole-plant preparations; the margin between pharmacological effect and life-threatening toxicity is exceptionally narrow, with the EFSA acute reference dose set at 0.016 µg/kg body weightsupported
Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) established at 0.016 µg/kg body weight for sum of (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine. j.efsa.2013.3386
botanical-overview3 · 3 ok
The wood of A. belladonna also contains high alkaloid concentrations — one documented case reports unilateral mydriasis from a splinter of belladonna wood contacting the eye, highlighting that toxicity risk extends beyond berry and leaf ingestion.supported
Unilateral mydriasis from wood splinter; documents that plant wood contains even higher alkaloid concentration than ripe fruit. pmid:10863712
Caucasian whortleberry (Vaccinium arctostaphylos): a case series in Turkey documents nine poisoning cases resulting from misidentificationsupported
Series of nine cases of belladonna poisoning in Turkey... Notes misidentification with Caucasian blueberry. 0960327111407225
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus): two adults were severely poisoned after making pie from frozen belladonna berries mistaken for bilberriessupported
Two adults severely poisoned from pie made of frozen belladonna berries mistaken for bilberries. pmid:10944889
legal-status2 · 2 ok
In a forensic case involving drug-facilitated sexual assault, scopolamine was detected in urine at 41 µg/L at 18 hours post-exposure (blood was negative at the same timepoint) and in hair at 0.37 pg/mg at 5 weeks post-exposuresupported
Scopolamine detected in urine at 41 µg/L (18h post-exposure) and in hair at 0.37 pg/mg (5 weeks post-exposure) in DFSA case. Blood was negative at 18h. j.forsciint.2023.111678
Plasma atropine measurement has been used for clinical management of acute belladonna poisoning.supported
Reports plasma atropine levels after accidental berry ingestion; discusses value of plasma measurement for clinical management. 15563650903058906