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Ayahuasca

Overview

Ayahuasca (also Yagé, Hoasca, Natem) is a psychoactive brew prepared from the vine Banisteriopsis caapi (Malpighiaceae) and a DMT-containing admixture plant, most commonly Psychotria viridis. The vine's beta-carboline alkaloids block MAO-A — the enzyme that otherwise destroys oral DMT in the gut before it can reach the brain.[1] With MAO-A blocked, DMT reaches the brain and activates serotonin receptors, producing the psychedelic state.[2]

Ayahuasca (also Yagé, Hoasca, Natem) is a psychoactive decoction prepared from the vine Banisteriopsis caapi (Malpighiaceae) and a DMT-containing admixture plant, typically Psychotria viridis. Beta-carboline alkaloids in the vine inhibit MAO-A, enabling orally consumed DMT to reach the brain intact.[1] DMT then activates cortical 5-HT₂A receptors, producing a serotonergic psychedelic state.[2]

Entity
Ayahuasca
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NoticeAll →
•6 lethal interactions(all →)
FamilyMalpighiaceae
GenusBanisteriopsis
SpeciesBanisteriopsis caapi
Native rangeSouth Tropical America — Argentina (Northwest), Bolivia, Brazil (North and West-Central), Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela
CultivationBoth wild-harvested and cultivated; actively cultivated by indigenous communities for ceremonial use; also wild-collected throughout native range
→ HARMINE0.31–8.43 % dry stem
→ HARMALINE0.03–0.83 % dry stem
→ TETRAHYDROHARMINE0.05–2.94 % dry stem
→ DMT0–17.65 mg/g dried leaf
traditional decoctionbuccal/transmucosal (research formulation)
PsychoactivePsychedelic
ChemicalSubstituted tryptamine
common100–200 ml
Highly variable: DMT 0.05–14.2 mg/mL; typical Brazilian religious brews 0.24–0.36 mg/mL
No standardized composition; inter-batch alkaloid variation is extreme. Clinical research doses: 0.6–1.0 mg DMT/kg body weight (~42–70 mg DMT for 70 kg adult). Discrete dose tiers (threshold/light/heavy) are not established in published literature. Ceremonial users may re-dose during sessions. Nausea and vomiting are common, culturally framed as 'la purga'.
DMT Cmax 33 ng/mL; harmine Cmax 49 ng/mL in 16-participant study
Experimental research formulation; harmine markedly enhanced DMT bioavailability vs oral decoction; duration approximately 4–5 hours. No established dose tiers for this route.
minlowmodhigh
Acute
Chronic
Physical
Psych.
Withdrawal
Buildupnone
Cross-tol.psilocybin, LSD, mescaline
Absolute3 entries
Psychotic disordersPregnancyConcurrent serotonergic medication
Relative4 entries
Severe cardiovascular diseaseLithium therapyBipolar disorderSevere hepatic impairment
lethal6
AmphetaminesMDMA, AmphetaminesMDMA, MDAPsychedelics
danger29
5-HTP, TryptophanAlpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonistAntihistaminesAntipsychotics
caution21
Dosage varies by body weight, tolerance & metabolism · Not medical advice · Terms
See an error? Suggest correction
See an error? Suggest correction

Ceremonial use spans centuries across dozens of indigenous groups in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia.[3] The pharmacological explanation — beta-carboline alkaloids enabling oral DMT activity — was established in 1984.[1] Today, 26 registered clinical trials are investigating ayahuasca for depression, PTSD, grief, and addiction,[4] with the first randomized placebo-controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression showing a 64% response rate versus 27% for placebo at day 7.[5]

Subjective effects include vivid visual imagery, emotional catharsis, ego dissolution, intense introspection, and prominent nausea.[6] The experience lasts 4–8 hours and is shaped as much by brew composition, setting, and psychological readiness as by dose — analyzed preparations vary 280-fold in DMT concentration.[7] Purging is common and is understood in traditional contexts as part of the process, not a side effect.[6]

Ayahuasca produces no physical dependence and no withdrawal; observational data suggest it may reduce rather than promote addictive behavior.[8] The dominant danger is the MAO-A inhibition window: combining ayahuasca with antidepressants or other serotonergic drugs can trigger serotonin syndrome — a potentially fatal response involving overheating, rigid muscles, and seizures.[9] Animal studies show toxicity to developing fetuses, making pregnancy an absolute contraindication.[10]

History[edit]

Traditional and indigenous use

Ayahuasca has been used ceremonially for centuries across dozens of indigenous groups in northwestern Amazonia — in present-day Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela.[3][6] Ceremonial uses include healing, divination, initiation, and spiritual purification. The brew carries different names across cultures: ayahuasca (Quechua), natem (Shuar, Ecuador), yagé (Tukano, Colombia), and hoasca or vegetal in Brazilian syncretic churches. Ethnographic documentation extends at least to the 17th century.[11] Emetic and purgative effects are culturally integral — understood as cleansing rather than a side effect.[6]

Traditional-use accounts in this section derive from ethnographic and ethnobotanical literature. Published primary documentation of indigenous ayahuasca use prior to 1980 is predominantly anthropological in format and has not been replicated under controlled pharmacological conditions.

Western discovery and research

The English botanist Richard Spruce formally described the vine during his 1849–1864 Amazonian expedition; the accepted binomial Banisteriopsis caapi was formalized in 1931.[12] In 1984, McKenna, Towers, and Abbott established that the beta-carboline alkaloids act as MAO-A inhibitors — explaining why DMT is active when consumed orally.[1] The first European double-blind controlled clinical studies ran from 1999 to 2003,[13][2] and a first fMRI study confirmed default mode network suppression in 2015.[14]

Modern research and regulation

Brazil first formally regulated ayahuasca in 1987, authorizing religious and ceremonial use — the world's first national regulatory framework for the preparation. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld Religious Freedom Restoration Act protections for the União do Vegetal in 2006; Peru declared ceremonial use a national cultural heritage in 2008. The first randomized placebo-controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression, published in 2018, reported a 64% response rate versus 27% for placebo,[5] and 26 registered interventional trials are active as of 2026.[4] Meta-analytic data report a large pooled effect size in mood disorders,[15] though broader pooled analysis yields a more conservative estimate at very low evidence certainty.[16]

Botanical Overview[edit]

Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V.Morton belongs to the family Malpighiaceae. It is a large woody climbing vine native to the tropical lowland forests of the Amazon basin and adjacent South American regions. Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. (Rubiaceae), the most common DMT-containing admixture plant, is an understory shrub native to the same Amazonian forests.

Both species are cultivated in tropical gardens throughout South America and increasingly worldwide. Wild populations remain abundant in intact Amazonian forest. The vine is harvested by cutting mature stems into sections; P. viridis leaves are picked fresh for brewing.

B. caapi is identified by its smooth greyish-brown bark that peels in longitudinal strips, opposite leaves, and a distinctive pattern of concentric rings in cross-section. P. viridis has glossy dark green elliptical leaves with prominent venation and small red berrylike fruits. Diplopterys cabrerana — known as chagropanga or chaliponga — serves as the DMT source in some Colombian and Ecuadorian traditions in place of P. viridis. Additional botanicals including tobacco (Nicotiana rustica) and Brugmansia species may be added to specific ceremonial preparations, significantly altering the pharmacological and safety profile.

Alkaloid Profile[edit]

Ayahuasca's effects arise from two alkaloid classes working together. The vine B. caapi supplies beta-carboline alkaloids — primarily harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine — that block MAO-A, the enzyme that would otherwise break down DMT in the gut before it reaches the brain. Without that block, orally consumed DMT is roughly 97% metabolized before reaching the brain and produces no psychoactive effect.[17]

Harmine is the most abundant beta-carboline and the primary MAO-A inhibitor;[1] it also inhibits the DAT.[18] Harmaline acts as a secondary MAO-A inhibitor with greater preclinical toxicity concerns than harmine.[19] Tetrahydroharmine inhibits serotonin reuptake — a separate mechanism that may contribute a mild anxiolytic component.[20][21] The admixture plant provides DMT, which activates serotonin receptors in the cortex and drives the psychedelic state;[2] DMT also engages several other receptor systems.[3][22][21][11]

Alkaloid concentrations vary dramatically between preparations. Analyzed brews show DMT concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL[7] — a 280-fold spread. Vine-to-leaf ratios, brewing duration, water volume, and plant cultivar all contribute. A "standard dose" cannot be established without laboratory testing.

Neuroscience[edit]

Where it acts

Once MAO-A is inhibited, DMT enters the brain and activates serotonin receptors on neurons in the cortex. Neuroimaging shows that this suppresses the default mode network — the brain circuit associated with self-referential thought and rumination — particularly in regions linked to self-awareness and planning.[14][23] Frontal and emotional brain regions become more active at the same time. This disruption of top-down control, combined with heightened sensory and emotional flow, underlies the ego dissolution and introspective intensity of the experience.citation needed

What it changes

DMT's action at sigma-1 receptors contributes anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects independent of its psychedelic action.[24] After the experience, proteins involved in neuronal growth and rewiring are elevated, and structural brain changes may persist well beyond the acute state.[25] EEG recordings show reduced alpha-wave activity in visual brain regions during the experience, correlating with the intensity of visual imagery.[2]

Subjective Effects[edit]

Summary

Ayahuasca produces a deeply introspective psychedelic state in which the body is as involved as the mind. Nausea and purging are central features, not incidental ones. Visual imagery can be vivid and complex; emotional material — memories, grief, fear — surfaces and is processed with unusual intensity. Effects build over 20–60 minutes, peak at 1.5–2.5 hours, and resolve over 4–8 hours. Brew composition varies widely between batches, and set and setting exert unusually strong influence on the character of the experience.

The experience overlaps most closely with high-dose psilocybin — comparable duration, similar visual complexity, and shared ego-dissolution phenomenology. Ayahuasca is consistently distinguished by substantially greater gastrointestinal engagement and a more pronounced emotional-cathartic quality that users and researchers describe as qualitatively distinct from the psilocybin experience.

Indigenous ceremonial use across northwestern Amazonia spans centuries, documented among dozens of ethnolinguistic groups in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia.[3] The pharmacological explanation — beta-carboline MAO-A inhibition enabling oral DMT activity — was established in 1984,[1] and the first randomized controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression showed significant effects at day 7.[4] As of 2026, 26 registered interventional trials span depression, PTSD, grief, and substance dependence.[5]

Subjective effects include complex visual imagery, ego dissolution, cathartic emotional processing, and prominent nausea.[6] The experience is deeply introspective, with set, setting, and brew composition each strongly modulating its character — inter-batch DMT concentrations range from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL.[7] Purging is culturally integral in indigenous ceremonial contexts rather than an incidental side effect.[6]

No physical dependence or withdrawal has been documented; observational data suggest anti-addictive rather than habit-forming properties.[8] The primary safety concern is the MAO-A inhibition window: co-administration with serotonergic medications carries risk of serotonin syndrome.[9] Developmental toxicity in animal models establishes pregnancy as a contraindication,[10] and brew composition remains unstandardized across ceremonial and commercial preparations.

History[edit]

Traditional and indigenous use

Ayahuasca use has been documented across dozens of indigenous ethnolinguistic groups throughout northwestern Amazonia — spanning present-day Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela — with ceremonial contexts including healing, divination, initiation, and spiritual purification.[3][6] Regional naming conventions reflect this breadth: ayahuasca (Quechua), natem (Shuar, Ecuador), yagé (Tukano, Colombia), hoasca and vegetal (Brazilian syncretic churches). The emetic and purgative effects are culturally integral — understood as physical and spiritual cleansing (la purga) rather than an adverse reaction.[6] The chronological depth of this tradition is not precisely dated; ethnographic documentation spans at least the 17th century.[11]

Traditional-use accounts in this section derive from ethnographic and ethnobotanical literature. Published primary documentation of indigenous ayahuasca use prior to 1980 is predominantly anthropological in format and has not been replicated under controlled pharmacological conditions.

Western discovery and research

Richard Spruce, an English botanist, first formally described the ayahuasca vine during his 1849–1864 Amazonian expedition, publishing it as Banisteria caapi; the accepted binomial Banisteriopsis caapi was formalized in 1931.[12] Harmine, harmaline, and DMT were isolated and chemically identified from B. caapi and admixture plants during 1958–1960. In 1984, McKenna, Towers, and Abbott demonstrated that beta-carboline alkaloids function as MAO-A inhibitors, providing the pharmacological explanation for oral DMT activity.[1]

Riba, Barbanoj, and colleagues in Barcelona initiated the first European double-blind controlled clinical studies between 1999 and 2003.[13][2] The first fMRI neuroimaging study demonstrated default mode network suppression in 2015.[14]

Modern research and regulation

Brazil's National Council on Drug Policy (CONAD) first formally regulated ayahuasca in 1987, authorizing religious and ceremonial use — establishing the world's first national regulatory framework for the preparation. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2006 (Gonzales v. O Centro) that the Religious Freedom Restoration Act protected UDV sacramental use. Peru declared ceremonial use a national cultural heritage in 2008. Colorado decriminalized natural psychedelics including ayahuasca via Proposition 122 in November 2022.[15]

The first randomized placebo-controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression, published in 2018, reported a response rate of 64% versus 27% for placebo at day 7.[4] As of 2026, 26 registered interventional trials span depression, PTSD, grief, and substance dependence.[5] Meta-analytic data report a Hedges' g of −1.34 (95% CI −1.86 to −0.82) for ayahuasca and DMT in mood disorders,[16] though broader pooled analysis yields a more conservative effect size at very low evidence certainty.[17]

Botanical Overview[edit]

Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V.Morton belongs to the family Malpighiaceae. It is a large woody liana — a climbing vine — native to the tropical lowland forests of the Amazon basin and adjacent regions of South America. The vine can reach substantial lengths, wrapping around host trees to access the forest canopy. Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. (Rubiaceae), the most common DMT-containing admixture, is an understory shrub native to the same lowland Amazonian forests.

B. caapi is identified by its smooth, greyish-brown bark that peels in longitudinal strips, opposite leaves, and small pink or pale flowers borne in axillary clusters. The vine's cross-section reveals a distinctive pattern of concentric rings. P. viridis is recognized by its glossy, dark green, elliptical leaves with prominent venation and small red berrylike fruits.

Both species are cultivated in tropical gardens throughout South America and increasingly in tropical regions worldwide. Wild populations remain abundant in intact Amazonian forest. The vine is typically harvested by cutting mature stems into sections, while P. viridis leaves are picked fresh for brewing.

Alternative DMT-containing admixture plants are used regionally, most notably Diplopterys cabrerana (Malpighiaceae) — known as chagropanga or chaliponga — which replaces P. viridis in some Colombian and Ecuadorian traditions. Additional admixture botanicals — including tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), Brugmansia species, and others — may be added to specific ceremonial preparations, significantly altering the pharmacological and safety profile.

Alkaloid Profile[edit]

Ayahuasca's psychoactive properties arise from the interaction of two distinct alkaloid classes sourced from separate plants. The vine B. caapi contributes beta-carboline alkaloids — primarily harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine — which function as reversible MAO-A inhibitors. The admixture plant (typically P. viridis) supplies DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), a tryptamine psychedelic. Without MAO-A inhibition, orally consumed DMT is approximately 97% metabolized to inactive indole-3-acetic acid during first-pass metabolism and produces no psychotropic effects.[18]

Harmine is typically the most abundant beta-carboline in B. caapi and serves as the primary MAO-A inhibitor enabling oral DMT activity.[1] Harmine also inhibits DYRK1A kinase and the DAT.[19] Harmaline acts as a secondary MAO-A inhibitor with greater preclinical toxicity concerns than harmine.[20] Tetrahydroharmine functions as a weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor, potentially contributing an anxiolytic component independent of DMT's psychedelic effects.[21][22]

DMT acts as a partial agonist at 5-HT₂A receptors — the receptor primarily responsible for its psychedelic effects.[2] It also engages 5-HT₁A, 5-HT₂C, TAAR1 (TAAR1), and sigma-1 receptors.[3][23][22][11]

Alkaloid concentrations vary dramatically across preparations. Analyzed ayahuasca brews show inter-batch DMT concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL,[7] making dose estimation unreliable without analytical verification. Vine-to-leaf ratios, brewing duration, water volume, and plant cultivar all contribute to this variability.

Neuroscience[edit]

Where it acts

Following MAO-A inhibition by the beta-carbolines, DMT crosses the blood–brain barrier and activates 5-HT₂A receptors on layer V pyramidal neurons in the cortex. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate decreased default mode network activity — particularly in the posterior cingulate cortex and medial prefrontal cortex — alongside increased frontal and paralimbic activation.[14][24] This pattern of disrupted top-down cortical processing is consistent with the REBUS model, in which entrenched cognitive patterns are destabilized and bottom-up sensory flow is enhanced.citation needed

What it changes

DMT's sigma-1 receptor activation contributes neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects beyond psychedelia, with roles in cellular bioenergetics and immunoregulation.[25] Neuroplasticity mechanisms — including BDNF upregulation and dendritic remodeling — occur after psychedelic administration, with structural changes outlasting the acute experience.[26] EEG recordings show alpha-band power suppression in parietal and occipital cortex, correlating with visual imagery intensity.[2]

Subjective Effects[edit]

Summary

Ayahuasca produces a deeply introspective psychedelic state in which somatic engagement — nausea, purging, and visceral body sensations — is as central to the experience as visual or cognitive changes. The brew's variable composition means two servings from the same ceremony may deliver substantially different alkaloid loads, and set and setting exert unusually strong modulation on experiential character. Effects build gradually over 20–60 minutes, peak at 1.5–2.5 hours, and resolve over 4–8 hours.

The experiential profile overlaps most closely with high-dose psilocybin — comparable duration, similar visual complexity, and shared ego-dissolution phenomenology — but with substantially greater gastrointestinal distress and a qualitatively distinct emotional-cathartic character that users and researchers consistently distinguish from the psilocybin experience.

Effect Grid

Dose Level:
Description

At 0.6–0.85 mg DMT/kg body weight — the range used in most clinical research — a full visionary state develops. Internal hallucinations dominate: complex geometric imagery, vivid scenery, and narrative sequences. External hallucinations and object transformations may appear. Thought connectivity intensifies, and introspection enhancement becomes the experiential center.

Nausea is prominent and vomiting is common, particularly within the first 60 minutes. Diarrhea occurs in some individuals. Pupil dilation, tachycardia, and diastolic blood pressure elevation (~9 mmHg) are documented. Spontaneous body sensations, muscle tension, and temperature dysregulation may occur.

Catharsis and emotional enhancement are characteristic. Time alteration is marked. The experience demands a full 4–8 hour commitment in a supported setting.

Modeled from the effect's dose-dependence curve — not per-substance measurements.

Perception(48)likelihood · intensity
Holotropic state
likely
Visual drifting
likely
Color alteration
likely
Geometry
likely
Tracers
likely
Symmetrical texture repetition
likely
Color enhancement
likely
Visual breathing
likely
Visual morphing
likely

Symmetrical texture repetition · Color enhancement · Visual breathing · Visual morphing · After-images · Auditory distortion · Brightness alteration · Environmental patterning · Perspective distortion · Spatial disorientation · Visual melting · Sound sensitivity · Music enhancement · Auditory enhancement · Depth perception distortion · Light sensitivity · Peripheral vision distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Visual haze / noise · Synesthesia · Auditory misinterpretation · Visual magnification · Dreaming enhancement · Peripheral misidentification · Touch enhancement · Vestibular distortion · Visual diffraction · Visual processing acceleration · Visual acuity enhancement · Flashbacks · Internal hallucinations · Object transformations · External hallucinations · Auditory hallucinations · Object activation · Perspective hallucinations · Visual recursion · Visual scenery slicing · Environmental orbism / cubism · Shadow people · Visual flipping · Olfactory hallucination · Persisting hallucinations

After-images · Auditory distortion · Brightness alteration · Environmental patterning · Perspective distortion · Spatial disorientation · Visual melting · Sound sensitivity · Music enhancement · Auditory enhancement · Depth perception distortion · Light sensitivity · Peripheral vision distortion · Proprioceptive distortion · Visual haze / noise · Synesthesia · Auditory misinterpretation · Visual magnification · Dreaming enhancement · Peripheral misidentification · Touch enhancement · Vestibular distortion · Visual diffraction · Visual processing acceleration · Visual acuity enhancement · Flashbacks · Internal hallucinations · Object transformations · External hallucinations · Auditory hallucinations · Object activation · Perspective hallucinations · Visual recursion · Visual scenery slicing · Environmental orbism / cubism · Shadow people · Visual flipping · Olfactory hallucination · Persisting hallucinations

Body(42)likelihood · intensity
Body scan awareness
likely
Nausea
likely
Pupil dilation
likely
Wakefulness
likely
Dizziness
likely
Stimulation
possible
Motor control impairment!
possible
Temperature dysregulation!
possible
Vasoconstriction!
possible

Wakefulness · Dizziness · Stimulation · Body schema distortion · Spontaneous body sensations · Body high · Physical fatigue · Vomiting · Bodily lightness · Appetite suppression · Excessive sweating · Tingling / electric sensations · Trembling · Vibrations / buzzing · Muscle tension · Involuntary body movements · Diarrhea · Heart rate perception changes · Dehydration sensation · Bodily heaviness · Bodily pressures · Breathing alteration · Dry mouth · Kundalini-like energy · Restlessness · Salivation · Vasoconstriction · Muscle relaxation · Sexual arousal suppression · Abnormal heartbeat · Headache · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Pain suppression · Respiratory stimulation · Motor control enhancement · Bodily dissociation · Tactile hallucination

Body schema distortion · Spontaneous body sensations · Body high · Physical fatigue · Vomiting · Bodily lightness · Appetite suppression · Excessive sweating · Tingling / electric sensations · Trembling · Vibrations / buzzing · Muscle tension · Involuntary body movements · Diarrhea · Heart rate perception changes · Dehydration sensation · Bodily heaviness · Bodily pressures · Breathing alteration · Dry mouth · Kundalini-like energy · Restlessness · Salivation · Muscle relaxation · Sexual arousal suppression · Abnormal heartbeat · Headache · Nystagmus (eye wobbles) · Pain suppression · Respiratory stimulation · Motor control enhancement · Bodily dissociation · Tactile hallucination

Thinking(39)likelihood · intensity
Introspection enhancement
likely
Pattern recognition enhancement
likely
Conceptual thinking
likely
Immersion enhancement
likely
Thought connectivity
likely
Increased nature relatedness
likely
Suggestibility enhancement!
possible
Decision impairment!
possible
Delusions!
v.rare

Immersion enhancement · Thought connectivity · Increased nature relatedness · Openness enhancement · Novelty enhancement · Aesthetic enhancement · Cognitive flexibility · Cognitive impairment · Memory replays · Multiple thought streams · Cognitive euphoria · Thought disorganization · Language suppression · Cognitive fatigue · Confusion · Focus suppression · Synchronicity · Thought loops · Creativity enhancement · Memory suppression · Analysis enhancement · Thought acceleration · Cognitive dysphoria · Information processing suppression · Memory fragmentation · Information processing enhancement · Motivation enhancement · Thought deceleration · Thought organization · Memory enhancement · Humor enhancement · Focus enhancement · Delusions · Delirium

Openness enhancement · Novelty enhancement · Aesthetic enhancement · Cognitive flexibility · Cognitive impairment · Memory replays · Multiple thought streams · Cognitive euphoria · Thought disorganization · Language suppression · Cognitive fatigue · Confusion · Focus suppression · Synchronicity · Thought loops · Creativity enhancement · Memory suppression · Analysis enhancement · Thought acceleration · Cognitive dysphoria · Information processing suppression · Memory fragmentation · Information processing enhancement · Motivation enhancement · Thought deceleration · Thought organization · Memory enhancement · Humor enhancement · Focus enhancement · Delirium

Feeling(12)likelihood · intensity
Emotional enhancement
likely
Catharsis
likely
Emotional lability
likely
Empathy enhancement
possible
Euphoria
possible
Simultaneous emotions
possible
Paranoia!
possible
Depression!
rare
Mania!
rare

Empathy enhancement · Euphoria · Simultaneous emotions · Anxiety · Anxiety suppression · Dysphoria · Mania

Anxiety · Anxiety suppression · Dysphoria

Self(19)likelihood · intensity
Emotional susceptibility
possible
Depersonalization
possible
Derealization
possible
Social connection
possible
Trust enhancement
possible
Compulsive behavior reduction
possible
Communication suppression
possible
Disinhibition
possible
Self-control suppression!
rare

Trust enhancement · Compulsive behavior reduction · Communication suppression · Disinhibition · Sociability suppression · Social disconnection · Flow state · Sociability enhancement · Ego inflation · Identity alteration · Boundary dissolution · Ego dissolution · Cognitive disconnection · Telepathic feelings

Sociability suppression · Social disconnection · Flow state · Sociability enhancement · Ego inflation · Identity alteration · Boundary dissolution · Ego dissolution · Cognitive disconnection · Telepathic feelings

Time(6)likelihood · intensity
Time alteration
likely
Temporal disorientation
likely
Present-moment absorption
possible
Deja vu
possible
Jamais vu
possible
Time cessation
rare

Time cessation

Transpersonal(12)likelihood · intensity
Unity and interconnectedness
likely
Noetic insight
rare
Entity contact
rare
Transpersonal feelings
rare
Existential realization
rare
Transpersonal visions
rare
Transpersonal memory access
rare
Non-dual awareness
rare
Death-rebirth sequence
rare

Transpersonal visions · Transpersonal memory access · Non-dual awareness · Death-rebirth sequence · Cessation · Near-death experience · Voidness

Cessation · Near-death experience · Voidness

Awareness(7)likelihood · intensity
Personal insight
likely
Lucid dreaming enhancement
possible
Cognitive dissonance
possible
Lucidity enhancement
possible
Mindfulness enhancement
possible
Reality testing impairment!
rare
Recursive awareness
rare

Mindfulness enhancement · Recursive awareness

report missing effect
Likelihood: how common this effect is at the selected dose level.This effect has safety implications — review before use.

Timeline · by preparation

traditional decoction (oral)
onset20 min – 1 h
peak1.5 h – 2.5 h
offset4 h – 8 h
buccal/transmucosal (research formulation) (sublingual)
offset4 h – 5 h

Preparations[edit]

Traditional decoction (oral)

Traditional decoction is the standard preparation. Sections of B. caapi vine are pounded and boiled with P. viridis leaves (or D. cabrerana) through multiple reduction cycles, producing a dark, viscous liquid consumed orally. In controlled studies at doses of 0.6–0.85 mg DMT/kg body weight, onset occurs at 20–60 minutes, peak at 1.5–2.5 hours, and total duration is 4–8 hours.[3][13] Inter-batch DMT concentration varies from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL[7] — a "standard dose" cannot be established without analytical testing.

Ceremonial preparations (variable admixtures)

Ceremonial preparations may include additional botanicals beyond the core vine-and-leaf combination. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), Brugmansia, or Datura species are added in some traditions. Plants containing tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine) create anticholinergic toxicity risk mechanistically separate from ayahuasca's serotonergic effects. Composition is typically not disclosed to participants in advance.

Freeze-dried and encapsulated (oral)

Freeze-dried ayahuasca and encapsulated preparations are used in some research and retreat settings. These aim for more consistent dosing but remain unstandardized — no accredited quality control framework exists, and alkaloid content still varies between batches. Onset and duration are comparable to traditional decoction.

Buccal and transmucosal (research formulation)

Buccal co-administration of DMT and harmine has been investigated in clinical research. This route achieves higher peak DMT concentrations than oral decoction, with harmine markedly increasing DMT bioavailability.[26][27] Duration is approximately 4–5 hours. This formulation remains experimental.

Per-preparation dose tiers, timelines, and bioavailability data are in the Dose · by preparation card on this page.

Safety[edit]

Harm
Acute toxicity
Low
Chronic toxicity
Negligible
Withdrawal
None
Tolerance buildup
none
Tolerance reset
—
Dependence
Physical
None
Psychological
Negligible
Compulsive redosing
Negligible
Dose escalation
Negligible
Cross-tol.
psilo · LSD · mesc
Risk Shape
TOXPHYPSYWDRREDTOL

Toxicity

A systematic review of 78 articles concluded that ayahuasca is generally safe in healthy populations under controlled conditions, with serious adverse events rarely reported.[19] No published case reports of death attributable solely to traditional ayahuasca without concurrent serotonergic drugs were identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

Moderate cardiovascular effects occur: diastolic blood pressure rises approximately 9 mmHg at 0.85 mg DMT/kg, accompanied by elevated heart rate, prolactin, and cortisol.[13][28]

Animal studies show developmental toxicity: at twice the human equivalent dose during gestation, neuronal loss occurs in the hippocampus; at four to eight times the human equivalent dose, maternal mortality reached 44–52%.[10] Pregnancy is an absolute contraindication.

Contaminant and adulterant risk: No standardized quality control exists — alkaloid content varies from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL between analyzed batches.[7] Some ceremonial preparations include undisclosed Brugmansia or Datura containing tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine), creating anticholinergic toxicity risk on top of the serotonergic effects. Ehrlich reagent confirms the presence of indole alkaloids but does not quantify concentration or detect non-indole adulterants.

Psychological Risks

Acute adverse effects include anxiety, fear, paranoia, confusion, perceptual overwhelm, and brief psychotic-like symptoms — intensity correlates with peak DMT concentration.[29] A systematic review found that a subset of retreat users developed persistent anxiety, depressive episodes, or thought disorganization.[30] Individuals with a personal or family history of psychotic disorders carry meaningful risk of psychosis precipitation. Experienced facilitation is associated with lower adverse event rates.[30]

Tolerance & Dependence

No tolerance development across sessions has been documented in regular ritual users.[3][31] No physical dependence or withdrawal has been documented.[8][31] Observational data suggest the opposite pattern: a systematic review found that 4 of 5 human studies showed reductions in substance dependence symptoms among ayahuasca users.[8] A cross-sectional study of 48 long-term religious users with over 20 years of regular use found no cognitive decline.[32]

Drug Interactions

The beta-carboline alkaloids inhibit MAO-A for several hours after consumption. Combining ayahuasca with serotonergic drugs during this window risks serotonin syndrome — a potentially fatal condition involving overheating, rigid muscles, unstable heart rate, and altered mental status.

SSRIs and SNRIs raise this risk through two mechanisms: serotonergic accumulation, and elevated DMT and harmine blood levels, because fluoxetine and paroxetine also block CYP2D6, the enzyme that clears these alkaloids.[9] Minimum washout: 2 weeks for most SSRIs and SNRIs; 5 weeks for fluoxetine.

Contraindications

Absolute contraindications:

  • Concurrent serotonergic medication (SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tramadol): serotonin syndrome risk via pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic mechanisms.[9]
  • Pregnancy: developmental toxicity demonstrated in rats — neuronal loss at 2× human equivalent dose; embryolethality at 8× dose.[10]
  • Active psychotic disorders or personal/family history of schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder.

Relative contraindications:

  • Severe cardiovascular disease: sympathomimetic effects include tachycardia and approximately 9 mmHg diastolic blood pressure elevation at 0.85 mg DMT/kg.[13]
  • Acute bipolar disorder: mania risk mechanistically plausible given serotonergic activation.
  • Severe hepatic impairment: impaired harmine clearance may prolong MAO-A inhibition.safety citation needed
  • Lithium therapy: seizure risk.safety citation needed

Harm Reduction[edit]

Forms & Identification

Reagent ResultsNot recorded+ add reagent results
AppearanceNot recorded+ add appearance
Red FlagsNot recorded+ add red flags

Ayahuasca is encountered as a dark brown to reddish-brown viscous liquid with a strongly bitter, astringent taste. Color and viscosity vary with brewing method and concentration. Ehrlich reagent testing confirms the presence of indole alkaloids (DMT and beta-carbolines produce a purple color change) but provides no quantitative information. Given the 280-fold variation in DMT concentration documented across analyzed preparations, laboratory-verified alkaloid content is the only basis for informed dosing decisions.

Full identification analysis →

Guidelines

  • Start with a low dose, particularly with an unfamiliar brew — potency varies dramatically between preparations.
  • Ensure adequate hydration before and during the experience. Have water and electrolytes available.
  • Fast for at least 4–6 hours before consumption to reduce nausea intensity and improve absorption consistency.
  • Prepare towels, buckets, and a clear path to a bathroom — purging is expected, not exceptional.
  • Have a sober sitter or experienced facilitator present throughout.
  • Avoid redosing within the first 90 minutes — onset can be delayed, and premature redosing risks overshooting.
  • Plan for a full recovery day afterward — do not drive or operate machinery for at least 12 hours post-ingestion.
  • Verify medication status: discontinue SSRIs, SNRIs, and tramadol with appropriate washout periods before use. Consult a physician before stopping any prescribed medication.

Set & Setting

Ayahuasca's extended duration (4–8 hours), intense emotional content, and prominent physical effects make environment and preparation critical. A comfortable, private space with easy bathroom access is essential. Experienced facilitation — whether ceremonial or clinical — is associated with lower adverse event rates in observational data. First-time use should be accompanied by a sober, trusted companion throughout. The experience frequently involves emotionally challenging material; psychological readiness and clear intention reduce — but do not eliminate — the likelihood of distressing episodes.

Aftercare & integration. The hours and days following an ayahuasca experience are characterized by emotional sensitivity, fatigue, and altered perspective. Eat lightly after the experience — bland foods, broth, and fruit are well-tolerated. Rehydrate thoroughly, particularly after significant purging.

Many users report heightened emotional processing in the 1–3 days afterward. Journaling and quiet reflection support integration. Avoid major life decisions in the immediate aftermath — insights benefit from sober re-evaluation.

Post-session psychotherapeutic integration — discussing the experience with a trained professional — is supported by observational evidence for reducing adverse psychological outcomes. If distressing thoughts, anxiety, or depersonalization persist beyond 72 hours, seek professional support promptly.

Recovery & Support

Ayahuasca does not produce physical dependence, and formal cessation protocols are not typically required. However, psychological attachment to repeated ceremonial use can develop. If ayahuasca use is interfering with daily functioning or being used to avoid addressing mental health needs through conventional care, professional support is appropriate.

For individuals experiencing persistent psychological distress after ayahuasca use — including prolonged anxiety, depersonalization, or trauma re-activation — the following resources are available:

  • SAMHSA National Helpline: 1-800-662-4357 (free, confidential, 24/7)
  • Fireside Project: 62-FIRESIDE (623-473-7433) — psychedelic peer support line
  • Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741

For psychiatric emergencies, call emergency services or go to the nearest emergency department.

Recovery resources, crisis lines, and support pathways → View all

Emergency Response

Recognizing an emergency:

Immediate steps:

  • Do not leave the person alone.
  • If serotonin syndrome is suspected (rigidity, hyperthermia, clonus), call emergency services immediately — this is life-threatening.
  • Move the person to a cool, quiet area. Remove excess clothing if hyperthermic.
  • Place an unresponsive person in the recovery position to protect the airway during vomiting.
  • Do not attempt to restrain someone experiencing agitation; create space and remove hazards.

What to tell the dispatcher: Name the substance (ayahuasca — containing DMT and monoamine oxidase inhibitors), approximate time of ingestion, quantity if known, all symptoms observed, and any medications the person takes. Good Samaritan laws providing legal protection for reporting drug emergencies exist in many jurisdictions.

No reversal agent for ayahuasca exists. Treatment is supportive. Hospital intervention may include benzodiazepines for agitation and cyproheptadine for serotonin syndrome.

Preparations[edit]

Traditional decoction (oral)

Traditional decoction is the standard preparation: sections of B. caapi vine are pounded and boiled with P. viridis leaves (or D. cabrerana) in water for several hours, often through multiple reduction cycles. The resulting dark, viscous liquid is consumed orally. In controlled studies at doses of 0.6–0.85 mg DMT/kg body weight, onset occurs at 20–60 minutes, peak effects at 1.5–2.5 hours, with total duration of 4–8 hours.[3][13] Inter-batch DMT concentration varies from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL,[7] making a "standard dose" impossible to define without analytical testing.

Ceremonial preparations (variable admixtures)

Ceremonial preparations may include additional botanicals beyond the core vine-and-leaf combination. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), Brugmansia, or Datura species are added in some traditions, significantly altering the pharmacological and safety profile. Addition of tropane-alkaloid-containing plants creates anticholinergic toxicity risk mechanistically distinct from ayahuasca's serotonergic effects. Composition is typically not disclosed to participants in advance.

Freeze-dried and encapsulated (oral)

Freeze-dried ayahuasca and encapsulated preparations are used in some research and retreat settings. These aim for more consistent dosing but remain unstandardized — no ISO-accredited quality control framework exists, and alkaloid content varies between batches. Onset and duration are comparable to traditional decoction.

Buccal and transmucosal (research formulation)

Buccal co-administration of DMT and harmine has been investigated in clinical research. In 16 healthy participants, this route achieved higher peak DMT concentrations than oral decoction, with harmine markedly enhancing DMT bioavailability.[27][28] Duration is approximately 4–5 hours. This formulation remains experimental.

Per-preparation dose tiers, timelines, and bioavailability data are in the Dose · by preparation card on this page.

Safety[edit]

Harm
Acute toxicity
Low
Chronic toxicity
Negligible
Withdrawal
None
Tolerance buildup
none
Tolerance reset
—
Dependence
Physical
None
Psychological
Negligible
Compulsive redosing
Negligible
Dose escalation
Negligible
Cross-tol.
psilo · LSD · mesc
Risk Shape
TOXPHYPSYWDRREDTOL

Toxicity

A systematic review of 78 articles concluded that ayahuasca is generally safe in healthy populations under controlled conditions, with serious adverse events rarely reported.[20] No published case reports of death attributable solely to traditional ayahuasca consumed without concurrent serotonergic drugs were identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

Moderate sympathomimetic cardiovascular effects are documented: diastolic blood pressure increase of approximately 9 mmHg at 0.85 mg DMT/kg, tachycardia, and prolactin and cortisol elevation.[13][29]

Developmental toxicity has been demonstrated in rats: at 4× and 8× human equivalent doses administered during gestation, maternal mortality reached 44–52% with kidney injury; the 2× dose produced neuronal loss in hippocampal CA1 region.[10] These data establish pregnancy as a contraindication.

Contaminant and adulterant risk: Ayahuasca preparations are subject to multiple contamination vectors. No standardized quality control exists — alkaloid content varies from 0.05 to 14.2 mg/mL between batches.[7] Ceremonial preparations may include undisclosed admixture plants, notably Brugmansia or Datura species containing tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine), creating anticholinergic toxidrome risk. Aqueous decoctions stored improperly can support microbial growth. Commercial preparations sold through retreat operations or online sources may contain misrepresented potency or non-botanical adulterants. No ISO/IEC-accredited testing framework or Certificate of Analysis standard exists for ayahuasca. Ehrlich reagent confirms presence of indole alkaloids but does not quantify concentration or detect non-indole adulterants.

Psychological Risks

Acute psychological adverse effects include anxiety, fear, paranoia, confusion, perceptual overwhelm, and transient psychotic-like symptoms. Intensity correlates with peak DMT serum concentration.[30]

A systematic review documented that a subset of naturalistic users from retreat settings experienced persistent psychiatric complications including anxiety, depressive episodes, and thought disorganization.[31] Psychosis precipitation is a risk in individuals with personal or family history of psychotic disorders.

Ceremonial contexts with experienced facilitators are associated with lower acute adverse event rates in observational data.[31] Post-session psychotherapeutic integration is supported by observational evidence for reducing adverse psychological sequelae.[31]

Tolerance & Dependence

No behavioral tolerance development across sessions has been documented in regular ritual users.[3][32] No physical dependence or characteristic withdrawal has been documented.[8][32]

Anti-addictive properties are suggested by the evidence: a systematic review found that 4 of 5 human observational studies showed reductions in substance dependence symptoms among ayahuasca users.[8] Long-term cognitive safety has been assessed in a cross-sectional study (n=48) of religious users with over 20 years of regular use: no cognitive decline was detected.[33]

Drug Interactions

The reversible MAO-A inhibition from beta-carboline alkaloids creates the primary interaction hazard. Co-administration with serotonergic drugs within the MAO-A inhibition window carries risk of serotonin syndrome — a potentially fatal condition characterized by hyperthermia, neuromuscular rigidity, autonomic instability, and altered mental status.

SSRIs and SNRIs: Fluoxetine and paroxetine are strong CYP2D6 inhibitors; modeling predicts they significantly increase both DMT and harmine plasma exposure.[9] The pharmacodynamic risk (serotonin accumulation) compounds the pharmacokinetic risk (elevated DMT and harmine from CYP2D6 inhibition). Minimum washout: 2 weeks from most SSRIs and SNRIs; 5 weeks for fluoxetine due to the long half-life of norfluoxetine.

Irreversible MAOIs (phenelzine, tranylcypromine): Additive MAO-A inhibition with high serotonin syndrome risk.

Tramadol: Combined serotonergic potentiation and CYP2D6 interaction; seizure threshold reduction.

Lithium: seizure risk noted in harm reduction literature with mechanistic plausibility.safety citation needed

Stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine): Additive sympathomimetic and serotonergic effects; compounded cardiovascular risk.

Antipsychotics: Pharmacodynamic antagonism at 5-HT₂A may blunt effects; QTc prolongation risk with concurrent use.

Contraindications

Absolute contraindications:

  • Concurrent serotonergic medication (SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tramadol): serotonin syndrome risk via pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic mechanisms.[9]
  • Pregnancy: Developmental toxicity demonstrated in rats — neuronal loss at 2× human equivalent dose; embryolethality at 8× dose.[10]
  • Active psychotic disorders or personal/family history of schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder.

Relative contraindications:

  • Severe cardiovascular disease: Sympathomimetic effects include tachycardia and diastolic blood pressure elevation of approximately 9 mmHg at 0.85 mg DMT/kg.[13]
  • Acute bipolar disorder: mania risk mechanistically plausible given serotonergic activation.
  • Severe hepatic impairment: Harmine metabolism depends on CYP2D6 and CYP1A2; impaired clearance may prolong MAO-A inhibition.safety citation needed
  • Lithium therapy: Seizure risk.safety citation needed

Harm Reduction[edit]

Forms & Identification

Reagent ResultsNot recorded+ add reagent results
AppearanceNot recorded+ add appearance
Red FlagsNot recorded+ add red flags

Ayahuasca is primarily encountered as a dark brown to reddish-brown viscous liquid with a strongly bitter, astringent taste. Color and viscosity vary with brewing method and concentration. Laboratory testing is the only reliable way to determine alkaloid content — visual inspection and taste cannot distinguish a weak brew from a concentrated one. Ehrlich reagent testing confirms the presence of indole alkaloids (DMT and beta-carbolines produce a purple color change) but provides no quantitative information. Given the 280-fold variation in DMT concentration documented across analyzed preparations, lab-verified alkaloid content is the only basis for informed dosing decisions.

Full identification analysis →

Guidelines

  • Start with a low dose, particularly with an unfamiliar brew — potency varies dramatically between preparations.
  • Ensure adequate hydration before and during the experience. Have water and electrolytes available.
  • Fast for at least 4–6 hours before consumption to reduce nausea intensity and improve absorption consistency.
  • Prepare towels, buckets, and a clear path to a bathroom — purging is expected, not exceptional.
  • Have a sober sitter or experienced facilitator present throughout.
  • Avoid redosing within the first 90 minutes — onset can be delayed, and premature redosing risks overshooting.
  • Plan for a full recovery day afterward — do not drive or operate machinery for at least 12 hours post-ingestion.
  • Verify medication status: discontinue SSRIs, SNRIs, and tramadol with appropriate washout periods before use. Consult a physician before stopping any prescribed medication.

Set & Setting

Ayahuasca's extended duration (4–8 hours), intense emotional content, and prominent physical effects (nausea, purging) make environment and preparation critical. A comfortable, private space with easy bathroom access is essential. Experienced facilitation — whether ceremonial or clinical — is associated with lower adverse event rates in observational data. First-time users should be accompanied by a sober, trusted companion. The experience frequently involves emotionally challenging material; psychological readiness and clear intention reduce — but do not eliminate — the likelihood of distressing episodes.

Aftercare & integration. The hours and days following an ayahuasca experience are characterized by emotional sensitivity, fatigue, and altered perspective. Eat lightly after the experience — bland foods, broth, and fruit are well-tolerated. Rehydrate thoroughly, particularly after significant purging.

Many users report heightened emotional processing in the 1–3 days afterward. Journaling and quiet reflection support integration. Avoid major life decisions in the immediate aftermath — insights benefit from sober re-evaluation.

Post-session psychotherapeutic integration — discussing the experience with a trained professional — is supported by observational evidence for reducing adverse psychological outcomes. If distressing thoughts, anxiety, or depersonalization persist beyond 72 hours, seek professional support promptly.

Recovery & Support

Ayahuasca does not produce physical dependence, and formal cessation protocols are not typically required. However, psychological attachment to repeated ceremonial use can develop. If ayahuasca use is interfering with daily functioning or being used to avoid addressing mental health needs through conventional care, professional support is appropriate.

For individuals experiencing persistent psychological distress after ayahuasca use — including prolonged anxiety, depersonalization, or trauma re-activation — the following resources are available:

  • SAMHSA National Helpline: 1-800-662-4357 (free, confidential, 24/7)
  • Fireside Project: 62-FIRESIDE (623-473-7433) — psychedelic peer support line
  • Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741

If you are experiencing a psychiatric emergency, contact emergency services or go to your nearest emergency department.

Recovery resources, crisis lines, and support pathways → View all

Emergency Response

Recognizing an emergency:

Immediate steps:

  • Do not leave the person alone.
  • If serotonin syndrome is suspected (rigidity, hyperthermia, clonus), call emergency services immediately — this is life-threatening.
  • Move the person to a cool, quiet area. Remove excess clothing if hyperthermic.
  • Place an unresponsive person in the recovery position to protect the airway during vomiting.
  • Do not attempt to restrain someone experiencing agitation; create space and remove hazards.

What to tell the dispatcher: Name the substance (ayahuasca — containing DMT and monoamine oxidase inhibitors), approximate time of ingestion, quantity if known, all symptoms observed, and any medications the person takes. Good Samaritan laws providing legal protection for reporting drug emergencies exist in many jurisdictions.

No reversal agent for ayahuasca exists. Treatment is supportive. Hospital intervention may include benzodiazepines for agitation and cyproheptadine for serotonin syndrome.

Frequently asked questions

What is Ayahuasca?

Ayahuasca is a psychedelic botanical decoction of Banisteriopsis caapi vine and DMT-containing admixture plants, active for 4–8 hours. Beta-carboline alkaloids in the vine reversibly inhibit MAO-A, enabling oral DMT bioavailability and 5-HT2A-mediated effects.

What are dangerous combinations with Ayahuasca?

The highest-severity documented interactions for Ayahuasca: Amphetamines (Lethal), MDMA, Amphetamines (Lethal), MDMA, MDA (Lethal), Psychedelics (Lethal), SNRIs (Lethal). See the interactions section for the full list with mechanisms and severity levels.

Is Ayahuasca addictive?

Psychedex records tolerance and dependence data rather than a yes/no rating. Recorded tolerance indicators for Ayahuasca: tolerance builds none; cross-tolerance develops with psilocybin, LSD, mescaline. See the article's dependence and safety sections for recorded dependence data.

experience reports

No experience reports yet. Be the first to contribute.

First-person accounts of subjective effects, timing, and outcomes — submitted for harm reduction.

references

  1. [1] 
    ^abcdMcKenna DJ, Towers GH, Abbott F (1984) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — Journal of Ethnopharmacology PMID:6587171
  2. [2] 
    ^abcdValle M, Maqueda AE, Rabella M et al. (2016) Inhibition of alpha oscillations through serotonin-2A receptor activation underlies the visual effects of ayahuasca in humans — European Neuropsychopharmacology doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.03.012
  3. [3] 
    ^abcdeDos Santos RG, Hallak JEC (2024) Ayahuasca: pharmacology, safety, and therapeutic effects — CNS Spectrums doi:10.1017/s109285292400213x
  4. [4] 
    ^abStojanovic T, Nilsson KW, Fredriksson R, Schioth HB, Moulin TC (2026) Registered Clinical Trials of Ayahuasca and DMT: A Scoping Review — Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics doi:10.1002/cpt.70311
  5. [5] 
    ^abPalhano-Fontes F, Barreto D, Onias H, Andrade KC, Novaes MM, et al. (2018) Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial — Psychological Medicine doi:10.1017/s0033291718001356
  6. [6] 
    ^abcdPoliti M, Tresca G, Menghini L, Ferrante C (2022) Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties — Planta Medica doi:10.1055/a-1675-3840

references

  1. [1] 
    ^abcdMcKenna DJ, Towers GH, Abbott F (1984) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — Journal of Ethnopharmacology PMID:6587171
  2. [2] 
    ^abcdValle M, Maqueda AE, Rabella M et al. (2016) Inhibition of alpha oscillations through serotonin-2A receptor activation underlies the visual effects of ayahuasca in humans — European Neuropsychopharmacology doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.03.012
  3. [3] 
    ^abcdeDos Santos RG, Hallak JEC (2024) Ayahuasca: pharmacology, safety, and therapeutic effects — CNS Spectrums doi:10.1017/s109285292400213x
  4. [4] 
    ^abPalhano-Fontes F, Barreto D, Onias H, Andrade KC, Novaes MM, et al. (2018) Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial — Psychological Medicine doi:10.1017/s0033291718001356
  5. [5] 
    ^abStojanovic T, Nilsson KW, Fredriksson R, Schioth HB, Moulin TC (2026) Registered Clinical Trials of Ayahuasca and DMT: A Scoping Review — Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics doi:10.1002/cpt.70311
  6. [6] 
    ^abcdPoliti M, Tresca G, Menghini L, Ferrante C (2022) Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties — Planta Medica doi:10.1055/a-1675-3840
Last updated Jun 4, 2026